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GENERAL OP DIVISION PORFIRIO DIAZ. 
President of the Mexican Republic. 



Edition for the World's Fair exposition. 



Jl?e F?i<;l7e5 of /T\?xi<;o 



AND 



ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



BY 

ADOLFO DUCLOS SALINAS. 



ST. LOUIS: 
Nixon-Jones Printing Co, 

1893. 






? 




e I^iefyes of /T\exieo. 






TO THE GENERAL OF DIVISION, 

MR. PORFIRIO DIAZ, 
president of the united states of mexico. 

Sir: This work, although it contains many glaring 

deficiencies, must possess for you one great merit ; 

that it deals with the study of the mexican 

Nation, to which you have consecrated, — 
not without great sacrifices, the best portion 
of your life, the sum complete of your ener- 
gies, i have therefore presumed to dedicate it to you. 

very respectfully, 

a.dolfo duclos salinas. 
(3) 



BOOK I 



PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 



(5) 



PREFACE. 

MEXICO AND HER REVOLUTIONS. 

I. Before passing in review the manifold sources of 
wealth possessed by the territory of Mexico ; before com- 
mencing the study of those elements of greatness and of 
prosperity but ill-developed upon which our Republic can 
count; before enumerating the list of her actual conquests, 
let us look over the arena in which they have been realized. 
Let us take a rapid glance at that stormy period which im- 
mediately preceded our own, but of which now remain only 
recollections and traditions. The bloody and lamentable 
picture we are about to present, without extenuation of any 
kind, will not serve so much to condemn the men of past 
generations, as to show that if in the midst of so much 
strife they have found time to do something in behalf of the 
moral and material development of the Republic, their 
deeds should rather be enrolled in the list of heroisms. 

The revolutionary period commences where the war of 
Independence ended. Hardly had the empire been consti- 
tuted when, in 1823, Santa-Ana revolted, proclaiming the 
Federation, and in 1824 Don Jose Maria Lobato gave in his 
adherence to the revolutionary plan. In August of the 
same year Don Antonio and Don Manuel Leon rose in arms 
in Oaxaca and in support of the cause of Lobato ; and in 
1827, Bravo and his followers announced the plan of 
October for the expulsion of the Spaniards. On the 30th 
November, 1828, the revolution of "La Acordada " broke 
out in the Capital ; in 1829 there was carried into effect the 
expulsion of the Spaniards which in its disastrous industrial 
consequences was equivalent to the worst kind of revolu- 

(7) 



8 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 

tion, and which brought in its train the Spanish invasion of 
the month of July of the same year. In December also 
of the same year General Bustamante revolted in Jalapa, 
Guerrero went to his encounter, and while the brothers 
Rayon were in revolt in the Capital, Bustamante assumed 
the presidency ; not that the revolutionary disturbance 
came therefore to an end; on the contrary, it became con- 
centrated in the south, where Guerrero had gone, and one 
after the other San Luis, Michoacan, Puebla, in short the 
majority of the States, joined the revolt. 

Shortly after the political assassination of Guerrero (on 
the 14th Feburary, 1831) came the new rebellion of Santa- 
Ana in January, 1832, seconded by Texas, Tamaulipas, 
San Luis and Zacatecas. In 1833 Don Ignacio Escalada 
rose in Morelia with the cry of " Religion and our Rights," 
and in July of the same year the Governor of Zacatecas 
pronounced against Santa-Ana, the Dictator. At this 
time there began those separatist's movements in Texas 
which ended with the recognition of her independence. 
In 1837 came the fresh rebellions of Ugarte, in San Luis ; 
of Urrea in Sonora; of Guzman in Michoacan, and others 
in Tamaulipas, all of which preceded by only a few months 
the first French intervention (in November, 1838). Not 
for this foreign intervention did the civil war cease. It did 
so only when Santa- Ana succeeded in getting the better of 
it in Acajete, on the 3rd of May, 1839. 

In July, 1840, Urrea, in conjunction with Gomez Farias, 
rose in Mexico, the resulting battle lasting fifteen days and 
ending with a victory for Bustamante. In the following 
year (1841) General Paredes proclaimed the Dictatorship 
in Guadalajara, on the 8th of August. Valencia sec- 
onded the movement in Mexico on the 31st of the 
same month and Santa-Ana in Veracruz on the 9th 
of September. Shortly afterwards occurred a fresh rising 
in Mexico (December, 1844), and meantime, at the very 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 9 

moment in which the war of American intervention was 
breaking out, General Paredes raised the revolutionary 
cry in San Luis. From the time of that intervention 
until the French one, partial insurrections abounded. 
In July of 1846, the rebellion of Yanez; in August that of 
Salas; in February of 1847 that of the "polkos;" 
shortly afterwards Paredes rose anew in Aguascalientes ; 
then Don Leon Marquez got up a revolution with not 
much success. In 1851, Bahamonde in Michoacan and 
Blancarte in Jalisco rose in arms against the government of 
Don Mariano Arista, and with them joined shortly after- 
wards L6pez Uraga who had been sent against them, a pro- 
ceeding which was imitated later (in 1853) by Kobles 
Pezuela. 

On the 1st of May, 1854, Don Florencio Villareal pro- 
claimed the famous revolutionary plan of Ayutla, after- 
wards seconded and reformed by Comonf ort in Acapulco ; 
then came interminable, bloody and fratricidal struggles, 
developed, now here, now there, amidst the darkness of 
the dictatorial policy, from one end of the republic to the 
other. Santa-Ana fell (in 1855) and Don Ignacio Comon- 
fort became President. New risings in Sierra Gorda and 
Zacapoastla ; the constitution of 1857, which Comonfort be- 
trayed in December of the same year ; he is proclaimed in 
the midst of the revolutionary effervescence — Juarez comes 
into power, but not into the capital, where Zuloaga has al- 
ready proclaimed himself anti-president . The strife between 
liberals and conservatives which brought in its disastrous 
train the French intervention, breaks out afresh, and — 
enough ! What has been said is sufficient to justify our 
putting the question, " could Mexico in the midst of such 
" distress, war and pillage, be expected to stimulate her 
" industries, develop her mines, promulgate and enforce 
" laws favorable to agriculture, protect commerce, insure 
" security to life and property, in short, set out with 



10 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

«' vigor on the road that leads to prosperity and civili- 
sation?" Most certainly she could not. Little, very 
little could be done in the midst of such commotion in the 
directions mentioned, and it is sufficient glory for our 
fathers to have left us the heritage of those political beliefs 
which rule alone at the present day. 

ERA OF PEACE. 

II. A new political order of things was inaugurated with 
the triumph of the Revolution of Tuxtepec, which com- 
pletely removed the inveterate elements of discord and retro- 
gression which then existed, and placed the country in new 
and unknown channels of prosperity. The triumph of the 
Revolution was the triumph of peace, and this latter triumph 
gave birth to a political-social evolution which made Mexico, 
heretofore the quarrelsome and retrogressive country of 
other years, the most progressive nation of Spanish- 
America. From the political era it had advanced to the 
economical stage ; from the contest for a beginning, to the 
struggle for existence; from the metaphysical or specu- 
lative epoch to the positive or real. 

The Conservative party, which arose from the ashes of 
the Spanish domination, and which, for nearly half a cen- 
tury had never ceased to sow discord among the Mexicans, 
had buried itself amidst the ruins of its last attempt and 
final treason — the French intervention. The triumphant 
elements, prostituted by the policy of procrastination which 
they had adopted immediately succeeding their victory, 
were removed in 1877 and replaced by other and newer 
ones, more in harmony with the spirit of our Jin de siecle. 

To establish a new order of things, it became necessary 
to inaugurate a formal policy of honesty, acknowledging 
the credits of foreign nations, and more especially that of 
the United States ; it was a matter of absolute necessity to 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



11 



give ear to the patriotism of the people in order to secure 
their pecuniary co-operation ; it was unavoidable to increase 
their burdens with new taxations, and finally, it was inev- 
itable to shirk the duty which confronted the government, 
of opening up new avenues of trade to commerce, to indus- 
try, to mining ; and institute a progressive policy which 
should be distinctly at variance with the decalogue of the 
former administrations. 

What the result of the efforts of the Executive has been 
in this direction will be seen in the superficial study which 
we propose to make of the works recently undertaken 
through the medium of his Cabinet. 




SIEGE OF MEXICO IN TIME OF THE CONQUEST. 
Mex. R. T. D. Los I 



12 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTEE I. 

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 

I. In referring, at this point, to the relations existing 
between Mexico and other countries and to the work 
undertaken by the Secretary of Affairs with a view to 
facilitating and improving the transaction of business per- 
taining to his department, we will merely notice matters of 
the greatest importance and omit those of a mere second- 
ary interest. 

It would be difficult, if not impossible, in a work of 
such complicated character as this, to descend to details 
and to follow, step by step, the delicate and progressive 
career of Mexican international polity; we will therefore 
confine ourselves to such a presentation as may be strictly 
necessary to give a correct and clear understanding of the 
subject, without venturing upon unwarranted comments or 
attempting to interfere with the policy of reserve neces- 
sary for the adjustment of relations now awaiting a 
settlement. 

The treaties entered into by the administration of 1862, 
in reference to the Powers which recognized the French 
intervention and the government of the usurper, were de- 
clared void and of no effect. The agents appointed by the 
government in foreign countries could not retain an official 
character after the restoration of the Republic but simply 
that of commercial, private agents, with instructions to be 
reserved and prudent in their conduct and to obey in all 
things the laws of the countries in which they resided. 

During this period of struggle, friendly international 
relations were sustained only by the American republics 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 13 

which had always displayed sympathy with the cause of 
Mexico's independence and liberty; among these the 
United States deserves especial mention, for, by the moral 
support which it lent to the national cause, it became 
entitled to the gratitude and consideration of the Mexican 
people and of the Mexican government. 

President Juarez in his address to the national assembly 
which convened December 8, 1867, used the following lan- 
guage in this connection : 

" By reason of the intervention our relations with Euro- 
pean powers were broken off. Three of these powers, by 
virtue of the treaty of London, entered into war with the 
Eepublic ; then France alone continued the intervention 
but the other European powers which had previously 
entertained relations with the Republic declined to recog- 
nize it and, in violation of the obligation of neutrality, 
recognized the so-called government sustained by France. 
"In this manner the European governments broke 
their treaties with the Republic and suspended the 
relations with us which they have not yet renewed 
The government has taken care also that the subjects 
of these nations residing in the Republic should be 
under the protection of the law and of the governmental 
authorities. The efficacy of this protection has been suffi- 
cient to remove any cause for complaint. It has been prac- 
tically shown that by reason of the enlightenment of our peo- 
ple and because of the principles of our liberal institutions, 
strangers living in Mexico are on an equality with Mexi- 
cans and enjoy all the rights and privileges granted by the 
laws, without need of the special protection resulting from 
treaties." Thus it was that the Executive did not find it 
inappropriate to declare that he was ready to enter into new 
treaties in proper and becoming terms whenever those 
foreign nations might see fit to present them. 

The confederation of northern Germany, Spain and Italy 



14 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

promptly displayed a disposition to re-establish relations of 
friendship with the Republic and sent successive, accredited 
representatives who were received by the President with 
due consideration and recognition. The relations with the 
United States are becoming closer and closer as the mer- 
cantile traffic and industrial operations between the two 
countries increase in volume and are strengthened by mutual 
confidence. 

FRONTIER MATTERS. 

II. The difficulties which have arisen in connection with the 
depredations of uncivilized Indians who inhabit the frontiers 
of Mexico and the United States have been settled in a satis- 
factory manner, notwithstanding the gravity which they had 
assumed. These depredations led to many complaints on the 
part of the authorities of both nations along the frontier 
of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamau- 
lipas. (The Mexican government has made concessions to 
the Indians, more or less important, but their absolute 
pacification could not be secured in the extensive and 
abandoned regions which they inhabit, and where not even 
the American republic has been able to guarantee absolute 
security for the lives and property of its own citizens. It 
was proposed on the part of the government of the United 
States that permission should be granted to its troops to 
cross into Mexican territory in pursuit of Indians and that 
they should be subjected, en masse, to the law of extradition, 
which both nations should co-operate to enforce. But the 
Executive did not possess authority to grant this permis- 
sion, and notice to this effect was given to the American 
minister, whose government persisted in its demand, add- 
ing, that it would not be hampered in its pursuit of the 
savage by any consideration. The Mexican minister made 
suggestions declaring that his government would find it 
necessary to enter a protest against the violation of its ter- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 15 

ritory, should such a case arise. Measures were taken to 
remove and transport, in a peaceful manner, to territory 
destined for that purpose in the United States, the tribe of 
Kickapoos who had crossed into Mexico in a time of peace ; 
but these refused to return to their former reservations. 
In the beginning of 1873, it was thought in Mexico that 
the o-overnment at Washington proposed to renew its ne- 
gotiations relative to the removal of these Indians and 
instructions were immediately given to the governors of 
Nuevo Leon and Coahuila to aid the American officials in 
the best manner possible, in making a peaceful removal. 
On this occasion the efforts of the Mexican Government 
were fruitless, as Colonel McKenzie, in May of the same 
year, crossed the Bravo river with United States forces 
and, making a sudden and unexpected attack upon a camp 
of Kickapoos, killed some and carried off about forty 
prisoners, women and children. The authorities of the 
frontier settlements of Mexico, becoming apprised of what 
had taken place, recruited some armed forces to attack and 
repel the American troops, but not being able to overtake 
them, had to return to their respective localities. The 
Mexican minister in Washington who had received notice 
of what had happened from the vice-consul at San Antonio, 
Texas, asked for instructions from the Secretary of Foreign 
Affairs to take suitable action in reference to the matter 
with the United States ; but no decisive step was taken at 
once, as it was deemed better on account of the gravity of the 
situation to await fuller and more complete details and infor- 
mation. The information received brought out some points 
of which the most important, till then unknown to the Mexi- 
can Government, was that the frontier forces of this country 
to whom was intrusted the task of fighting the uncivilized 
Indians, had crossed, in pursuit of them, into United States 
territory where, far from being interfered with, they had 
been protected, without any thought on the part of the 



16 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

military authorities that their territory had been violated 
by the presence of Mexican troops in pursuit of a common 
enemy. This circumstance, together with the fact that the 
American troops had entered no populated locality on the 
frontier of Mexico, and that they had inflicted no loss or 
caused no damage to the inhabitants, during their march, 
calmed the excitement created on the northern frontier. 

Other invasions of Mexican territory occurred subse- 
quently. In November of 1875 an American official carried 
out his plau to enter Mexican territory in pursuit of certain 
criminals. General Fuero, by reason of this occurrence, 
appealed to General Potter, commanding at Brownsville, 
and notified him that such invasion was contrary to the 
treaties between the two nations, and that, should he fail 
to withdraw the troops immediately from the national ter- 
ritory, he would not only protest against the aggression, 
but would be compelled to repel force with force. General 
Potter replied by saying that his repeated orders to Amer- 
ican officers to make no aggressive move against Mexico, 
had been disobeyed, but that having repeated them in con- 
nection with tbe incident against which a protest had been 
entered, the American troops had withdrawn. 

On the 3d of April, 1877, Lieutenant-Colonel Shaffer 
made another invasion, taking possession of Piedras 
Negras, not in pursuit of malefactors, but to wrest from 
the Mexican authorities by force, two Mexicans guilty of 
crimes committed on Mexican soil. 

The minister of this country at Washington, protested 
against the invasion on the 28th of the same month and 
asked that the government inflict punishment on the guilty 
parties, and give guaranties against similar occurrences in 
the future. In May following, the Secretary of State re- 
plied, saying that he had already asked for information 
concerning the matter. Notwithstanding, on the first of 
June, the war department of the United States issued an 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 17 

order to General Ord, in which authority was granted to 
the United States troops to invade Mexican territory in 
pursuit of certain classes of malefactors, to capture and to 
punish them, and to recover the property stolen from 
American citizens. 

While the Plenipotentiary of Mexico at Washington was 
protesting against this order, the President, through the 
Secretary of War, was imparting to General Trevino, chief 
of the military zone of the north, certain instructions 
intended to obviate those conflicts as far as possible or, at 
least, in an extremity, to save the honor and dignity of the 
republic. 

General TrevirLo was advised to locate his forces at the 
most convenient points, so as to guard the Mexican frontier 
and prevent the thieves of both sides of the Bravo from 
escaping punishment by simply crossing the river, and to 
this end, to pursue, within the boundaries of the Republic, 
malefactors who may commit theft in Mexican territory, 
and seek safety in the United States, as well as those who, 
having committed a theft in that country, might cross to 
Mexico to escape justice; that in case the civil or military 
authorities of the United States should make a demand for 
criminals arrested by the troops under his command, his 
action should be regulated by the extradition treaty in force 
in 1862. He was authorized, as well, to act in concert with 
the proper authorities in pursuing criminals, without thereby 
authorizing, in any event, foreign troops to enter Mexican 
territory ; to prevent Mexican troops from entering upon 
foreign soil, and that in bringing these instructions to the 
knowledge of General Ord or the commander of the United 
States forces, he would give him to understand that the 
wishes of the President on this point, contained no other 
restrictions than those imposed by international law, the 
treaties of both countries, and the dignity of the Republic. 
That, as the national government, as a consequence, could 



18 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

not permit foreign forces to enter Mexican territory with- 
out the consent of the national Congress, much less allow 
these forces to exercise acts of jurisdiction such as were 
expressed in the order issued by the war department of 
the American Union, he should repel such forces if an 
invasion took place. 

In the month of September of the same year, a party of 
American soldiers made, another invasion; they attacked 
the camp of the Lipans, burned their temporary habita- 
tions, carried off five aged Indians which they captured in 
the assault, and a considerable number of horses belonging 
not only to the Indians, but also to several Mexicans. 

A party of a hundred men left Zaragoza in pursuit, 
under the command of Colonel Inocente Rodriguez, but 
failed to overtake them, the invading force having re- 
crossed the river Bravo. 

This anomalous situation on the Mexican frontier lasted 
till the year 1882. 

On the 3rd of May of this year, the United States min- 
ister to Mexico requested the government to allow the 
American troops to enter Mexican territory in pursuit of 
rebellious Indians. The reply was given, that only the 
Senate could grant such permission, and that the Executive 
could appeal to that body for such authority only when he 
knew that the United States was disposed to make similar 
concessions to Mexican troops under like circumstances. 
The American government, having declared this to be a 
matter of reciprocity, authority was asked from and 
granted by the Senate on May 11th, 1882, whereby the 
United States troops were permitted to enter Mexican 
territory and the Mexican troops, United States territory, 
in accordance with the enactments of the same body on May 
29th, 1879, and the amendments of October 14th, 1880. 

The authority was granted for the period of one year, 
and the agreement was signed in Washington on the 29th 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 19 

of July of the same year. On the 28th of July, 1883, it 
was extended for another year, and again renewed for 
a similar period on October 31st, 1884. 

During last year was renewed between Mexico and the 
United States the agreement, that the Federal troops of the 
two countries can cross the borders for the purpose of pur- 
suing the savage Indians. This agreement was renewed as 
a result of the depredations committed by the Apaches who 
are under the leadership of " Kiel " on the entire frontier 
of Arizona and New Mexico. The agreement will remain 
in force during one year from November 25, 1892. 



AGREEMENTS RELATIVE TO BOUNDARY LINES WITH THE 
UNITED STATES. 

The special relations existing between Mexico and the 
neighboring nations of North America and Guatemala, led 
the Mexican government to direct its attention to measures 
for settling the difficulties which may arise, in the shape of 
just and equitable agreements in which it was stipulated 
that commissions be appointed pending a definite settle- 
ment of the boundary lines. In this manner the agreement 
signed in Washington on July 29, 1882, was negotiated. 
Its purpose was to determine the manner in which the 
monuments should be placed which indicated the dividing 
line between Mexico and the United States, established in 
conformity with the treatise of February 2d, 1848, and of 
December 30th, 1853 ; which monuments may have been 
partially destroyed or misplaced; and how to erect new 
ones in case of necessity. 

The longest period allowed by this agreement for the 
work of the respective commissions, was four years and 
four months, but at the request of the American govern- 
ment an extension of eighteen months was granted by an 
additional document signed December 5th, 1885. 



20 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

This extra time having expired without the appointment 
of the boundary commission, both governments signed the 
agreement of February 18th, 1889, putting in force the 
stipulations of the treaty of July, 1882, and continuing it 
for five vears longer, to be calculated from the date of its 
ratification, October 12th, 1889. 

The continuous variations of the river Bravo, have given 
rise to the difficulties between the two governments. To 
settle them, the agreement of November 12th, 1884, was 
arranged whereby rules were fixed to decide questions 
which might arise from the variations of the rivers Bravo 
and Colorado, which bound the .two republics. 

The agreement was ratified on September 29th, 1886. 
Another agreement was entered into on March 1st, 1889, 
for the purpose of facilitating the application of the prin- 
ciples contained in the one preceding. An international 
boundary commission was established by the first article 
with exclusive jurisdiction to decide under certain condi- 
tions, all differences and questions which may arise by 
reason of the boundaries indicated by the rivers mentioned. 
Its duration is to date for five years from December the 
24th, 1890, the date of its ratification. 

The dividing line indicated by the river Bravo, gave rise 
to a new international difficulty. In February, 1884. 
Beaver Island was invaded by several Texans who despoiled 
and expelled the Mexican citizens that occupied it. Al- 
though considered Mexican territory, the right of Mexico 
to reclaim its ownership of the island seemed doubtful ; on 
which account, both governments concluded to maintain the 
statu quo while the matter was being determined by the 
precedents established. The plans submitted, when the 
boundaries were traced, were examined, the report of the 
commission ad hoc sent upon the ground to study the spot 
in controversy and, also, the report of General Emory, 
chairman of the American commission and^ no other means- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 21 

of investigation being at hand, the Secretary of Affairs 
hastened to send to the Mexican Legation in Washington 
the letter of September 26th, 1884, in which it was recom- 
mended to make known to the Department of State, that 
the Mexican government did not insist upon its right to the 
island of Morteritos or Beaver Island or Island No. 13. 

AGREEMENTS RELATIVE TO THE BOUNDARIES OF 
GUATEMALA. 

The boundary question has been the cause of constant 
difficulties with the republic of Guatemala ever since the 
independence of Mexico, notwithstanding the negotiations 
initiated by the latter in 1832, 1852 and 1858. 

In 1873 several persons, natives of Guatemala, located 
in a district called Bejucal ; they asked to be considered 
Mexican citizens, and the government, which has regarded 
this district as national territory, arranged for the estab- 
lishment therein of Mexican officials. The government of 
Guatemala entered a protest insisting that Bejucal belonged 
to that republic. The Mexican Executive suspended the 
pending arrangements, and immediately asked the Governor 
of Chiapas for a report. In view of this report, instruc- 
tions were again issued on the second of "July following, to 
carry out the previous order, and an answer was sent on 
the same date to the Charge d'Affaires of Guatemala, say- 
ing that Mexico considered Bejucal as a part of her terri- 
tory. The government of Guatemala, on the 30th of 
August disputed the grounds on which Mexico's resolution 
was based, and protested against the step taken, declaring 
that she would not renounce her sovereignty over Chiapas 
and Soconusco. The President of Mexico replying to the 
statements of Guatemala, insisted upon the resolution he 
had taken, declaring that he would permit no discussion 
concerning the possession of Chiapas and Soconusco by the 
Republic. 



22 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

A movement was then inaugurated to fix the boundaries 
of the two countries, as a means of settling the difficulty 
referred to and any other of a similar nature that might 
arise. A formal invitation was extended to the government 
of Guatemala to grant full authority to open negotiations 
in Mexico and to designate, of common accord, a scientific 
commission to make investigations, draw plans and obtain 
the requisite information. 

On the 22nd of July, 1874, negotiations were begun with 
the Guatemalan legation, which had been invested with 
complete authority, concerning the preliminaries of the 
boundary dispute, and on the 7th of December, 1877, the 
duplicate agreement was signed. By virtue of this agree- 
ment, a mixed commission composed of engineers was cre- 
ated for the purpose of examining and studying the dividing 
line between the two countries, which commission was to 
meet in the city of Tapachula two months after the mutual 
ratification. 

In 1881 the investigation was not concluded and it 
was proposed by Mexico to remodel the agreement because 
of the termination of its last period of extension. 

" But in the meantime," says Mr. Mariscal, in his report 
to the Senate in -1882, " a grave incident occurred which 
determined the manner in which this boundary question, so 
long-lived and apparently so interminable because of the 
pains taken by Guatemala to profit by it for the acquisition, 
in whole or in part, of the territory of Chiapas, should be 
settled. 

Official notice was received of an invasion made by the 
Prefect of San Marcos, in conjunction with Guatemalan 
soldiers who demolished a boundary sign recognized then 
provisionally, as an international mark, and erected 
another some leagues distant from our territory. This was 
one of many acts of daring rashness with which the author- 
ities of Guatemala ridiculed our apparent weakness, evi- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 23 

denced by the habitual absence from the neighborhood, of 
armed troops, either State or Federal. It then appeared to 
me that only the presence of Mexican troops in the vicinity 
of the frontier, could prevent the repetition of such acts, 
by giving the government of Guatemala to understand that 
the time had arrived to settle the matter in controversy 
without the evasions and disturbances with which it had 
always been disgraced. 

The President, with good judgment, undertook the task 
of inaugurating with respect to Guatemala, a more ener- 
getic policy, but one based on the strictest justice, and 
consented to the sending of troops to Soconusco. The 
troops finally succeeded in overcoming many obstacles 
which it is unnecessary to mention and, sustained, by their 
presence, the measure proposed by the Secretary of 
Affairs — to replace the boundary sign destroyed by the 
Prefect and other armed Guatemalans, and tear down the 
one erected by them. 

At the bare announcement that troops were marching to 
the frontier, the government of General Barrios under- 
stood that they were determined to defend our rights with- 
out yielding longer to ridicule in the shape of audacity or 
intrigue. He even thought that we were about to make 
war on him, either ostensibly or in a covert manner, by 
fostering on the frontier revolutionary movements which 
we might promote in his territory. He was correct in 
neither, as we will show at the inception, by declaring the 
real purpose of the expedition. *' * * That govern- 
ment, believing itself in danger, began to take extraordinary 
precautions, preparing for war by the organization of its 
army, the purchase of arms and so forth — heavy and use- 
less expenses which only served to weaken it. But, above 
all, it was resolved to adopt the measure of which some 
Guatemalan statesmen had dreamed — it was resolved to 
appeal to an alliance with the United States, against Mexico, 



24 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

to an alliance that might assume the appearance of a most 
impartial arbitration. 

At this time the Hon. Mr. Blaine was in Washington as 
Secretary of State or minister of Foreign Affairs, who, with 
his enterprising and active policy, was attracting universal 
attention. It was regarded as an opportune moment, and 
an appeal was made to Mr. Blaine with a view to securing 
his mediation between Mexico and Guatemala. What fol- 
lowed this appeal is well known, and in what terms the 
Secretary of State, in the name of his government, pro- 
posed to ours an arbitration by the United States. * * * 
A fact which is not yet generally known, and which, 
at first, could only have been suspected though it 
has since been fully established, is that at the 
time mentioned, extensive plans were being hutched and 
subsequently being carried into effect in conjunction 
with the appeals for mediation on the part of the United 
States, to annex Soconusco and even Guatemala to the 
United States for the purpose of preventing the latter 
nation from displaying impartiality in the proposed arbi- 
tration and, finally, to give Mexico a powerful neighbor 
on the south. 

Meanwhile the horrible crime which deprived President 
Garfield of his life, occurred, and, taking advantage of it 
in Guatemala, the Minister of Affairs of that government, 
D. Lorenzo Montufar, proceeded to Washington apparently 
on a mission of condolence and sympathy, but, in reality, 
to advance the intrigues referred to. As a matter of fact, 
his residence in the capital lent them much importance, 
for with his undeniable energy and ingenuity, Sefior 
Montufar knew how to win the co-operation of active and 
intelligent agents. 

Mr. Blaine had replied to a communication, insisting 
upon the proposition of arbitration by his government, 
even if the question of Chiapas should be excluded. It did 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 25 

not seem opportune to me to respond to such persistence 
till I had satisfied myself if the Secretary of State would 
change his views. During the period when this change 
was taking place, I sent my second reply which has not 
yet been published, to Mr. Blaine, limiting myself prin- 
cipally to the statement that the question of the territory 
belonging to Chiapas, comprising Soconusco, being elim- 
inated (of which Mr. Blaine had made no mention), I 
believed that it would be a very simple matter to fix the 
boundaries and that there would be very little probability 
of arbitration necessary, but that in the remote event of 
such necessity, the government of Mexico would accept 
with pleasure in such capacity, the President of the United 
States. 

At this time our minister to Washington, Mr. Manuel 
Zamacona, resigned his position and Mr. Matias Eomero, 
whose antecedents and special aptitude for the handling of 
the Guatemalan controversy had caused him to be selected 
for the position, was substituted in his place. Mr. Romero 
had -scarcely arrived in Washington, when he found that 
the attitude of that government was gradually assuming 
an impartial phase, a thing much to be desired in so 
grave an emergency. The agents of Guatemala became 
aware of this, and. great must have been the alarm 
it caused to their government when it conceived the 
idea of making a coup d'etat, so to say, by fully 
empowering President Barrios to go in person to Washing- 
ton for the purpose of settling the difficulty with Mexico. 
Mr. Romero, on his part, with the energy and zeal which 
characterize him, had thrown more light on the subject 
among the members of the press, and still more among 
persons of great influence with the people and the adminis- 
tration. Proof of this is to be found in the letter which 
the illustrious General Grant addressed to Mr. Romero, 
and which the latter had published by the press ; a docu- 



26 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

ment from which it was easy to infer with the greatest 
degree of probability, what answer the United States would 
give to the appeal for arbitration so eagerly made by Gen- 
eral Barrios. 

As a matter of fact, the answer given by the government 
at Washington, was this : that it was disposed to serve a3 
arbitrator in the boundary controversy between Mexico and 
Guatemala only in case both nations should seek it of com- 
mon accord. In vain, as is known, did General Barrios 
tenaciously insist and implore that arbitration should be 
imposed upon us, alleging that only in that manner could 
confidence be inspired in any arrangement that might be 
made, since Mexico did not inspire him with any ; Presi- 
dent Arthur adhered firmly to his decision. In vain, as is to 
be reasonably presumed, efforts were made to tempt the 
United States government by proposals of annexation and 
so forth, which had previously been made by Mr. Montu- 
far ; the result was the same and the disillusion the most 
complete. 

What then was he to do? That which he should have 
tried to have done at first ; have an understanding with 
onr government without attempting to secure forced medi- 
ation or to obtain it in a clandestine manner. This is what 
followed, apparently with sincerity, for he declared to Mr. 
Eomero that his conduct, which had been hostile to Mexico, 
had rather been the result of wicked and malicious coun- 
sel than of his own volition. He showed himself disposed 
to renounce the pretended claims of Guatemala to Chiapas 
and Soconusco, and to enter into a treaty in relation to the 
boundaries between the two countries ; for which purpose 
he desired to visit Mexico immediately. 

The wishes expressed by General Barrios to come to 
Mexico, could not be carried out, by reason of the neces- 
sity incumbent on him of concluding a treaty as soon 
as possible, and the anxiety of that gentleman to go to 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 27 

Europe in furtherance, apparently, of other plans which he 
entertained. It was for this reason that Mr. Romero was 
empowered by telegraph, to attach his signature to certain 
preliminaries renouncing the claim already indicated; 
declaring that no indemnification of any kind would be 
required therefor, and promising to adjust in Mexico a 
boundary treaty based upon actual possession, and, if it 
should be necessary, in some instances, to ignore that, to 
eventually compensate each other by exchange of territory. 
These preliminaries were to be signed by Mr. Romero in 
conjunction with General Barrios and the Guatemalan 
minister to Mexico who was then in New York whither he 
had been summoned by General Barrios." . 

The preliminaries were signed in New York on August 
the 12th, 1882. The first article said- The Republic of 
Guatemala waives the discussion in which it has been en- 
gaged relative to the claims, in its favor, to the territory 
of the State of Chiapas and its department of Soconusco. 

" As the Senate will notice," continued Mr. Mariscal, 
"the preliminaries were already a victory over the former 
pretensions of Guatemala to Chiapas and Soconusco. 
Nevertheless the renunciation of the pretended claims 
of that nation, was not expressed with entire clear- 
ness, as it was said that Guatemala waived the discussion 
not that it renounced its claims and for this reason, it 
was possible, though it did not appear probable, that 
she might some time desire to assert these claims with- 
out discussing them. It was necessary to amend this state- 
ment in the manner presented in the first article, by saying 
definitely : ' The Republic of Guatemala renounces for- 
ever the rights, which it claims to possess, to the territory 
of the State of Chiapas and its department of Soconusco 
and, as a consequence, regards said territory as an integral 
part of the United Mexican States.' " 

This treaty, as stated in another chapter, was signed on 



28 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

September 27th, 1882, and promulgated May 2d, 1883. 
As it stipulates to trace the boundary line with due pre- 
cision on trustworthy maps, and to establish on the land 
monuments which would make the boundaries of both 
republics visible, each government had to appoint a scien- 
tific commission which had to begin operations within six 
months from the date of ratification by both parties, at the 
latest. The protocol of September 14, 1883, was arranged 
for the purpose of regulating the details of organization, 
and the work of the commission, and by this it was agreed 
that an extension of time till November 1, 1886, should be 
granted to the commissioners, in which to complete their 
labors. This -period was extended by the agreement of 
October 16, 1886, and for two years longer by that of 
October 22, 1888. 

Finally by the agreement of October the 20th, 1890, the 
period stipulated by the treaty of September 27, 1882, and 
extended by the protocol and agreements already men- 
tioned, was still further extended for two years, to date 
from November 31, 1890, to October 31, 1892. 

COMMERCIAL TREATIES. 

III. The relations of the Republic with the German 
empire have grown closer of late years, to the reciprocal 
advantage of the commercial interests of both countries. 
In 1877, Mr. Vallarta, then minister of Foreign Affairs, 
said in his report to the National Congress, that 
the motives which have induced and still induce the 
government of Mexico to maintain solid relations with 
that country, among which are to be considered a recogni- 
tion of the special services rendered by the diplomatic rep- 
resentatives of the dynasty in power in 1840, and in the 
unfortunate epoch of 1847, when the emperor did not yet 
occupy the throne ; that subsequently united Germany 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



29 



availed itself of the first opportunity to rectify a mistake 
into which it had been led by an error common to the time 
in which it happened ; that it again offered to renew its 
friendship with the republic, by initiating negotiations 
for a treaty of commerce and navigation, and that, finally, 
the government of Germany, in conformity with established 
rules whereby the principle of sovereignty is recognized by 
independent nations, had been the first to recognize that 
the administration of Mexico then in force, and exercising 
exclusive authority in its civil affairs, not only without 
resistance, but with the approval and support of the 
Mexican people, combined, in the exercise of such author- 
ity, all the conditions of an organized government, and that 
none other had the right to pass judgment upon, or ignore, 
its existence. That this respect for the doctrine of non- 
interference which Mexico had maintained at all times, 
rendered doubly appreciable the friendship of a people, 
who in the moral and intellectual order, through the medium 
of one of the most illustrious sages, had favored the prop- 
agation of ideas of independence among the colonists of 
New Spain. 

The treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between 
the North German Confederation and the Zollverein on 
August 28th, 1869, and which was to remain in force till the 
25th of August, 1878, was condemned, as it was deemed pro- 
per to arrange another better adapted to the necessities of the 
two countries. Negotiations were initiated in July, 1882, 
and on December the 5th of the same year, the new treaty 
was signed, and on July 26th, 1883, the same was ratified. 
In this treaty are specified for the first time, in a precise 
and definite manner, principles which the Spanish American 
especially, has been obliged to defend as fundamental rules 
of popular rights. Among others, the following appear : 
That as regards the reclamations or complaints of individ- 
uals in matters of civil, criminal or executive jurisdiction, 



30 Tiu: RICHES OF MEXICO 

respective diplomatic representatives would only inter- 
fere in cases where justice was denied, or delayed in au 
extraordinary and illegal manner: where a positive sentence 
si ..Id fail of execution or where, legal remedies beiug ex- 
hausted, there had been au express violation of the treaties 
existing between the two nations, or of the principles of 
international law, public or private, generally recognized 
by civilized nations : that the German government will not 
seek to make M:\ - - le uuless when the Mexican 

- or their representatives may have failed or 
se due diligence in connection with injuries, 
vexatious oi iges i ;ted by the insurgents, upon 

man su - M an territory, during a period of 

civil war. or by savage tribes refusing to pay allegiance to 
inment. 

X0KWAT AXP SWEDEN. 

Ml l :ristophersen having been received iu Mexico as 
Minister Plenipc y ad hoc of the kingdom 

and Sweden - .. 1885, explained on the 2»5th 

f his mission, which was U 
: : tship, Bommeree and navigation. 
As the traffic of this nation with the Mexican St ates 

terns, Tamaulipas. Campeche and Yucatan 
f importer; 

sided to, aud the 

rere sabs the plenipote 

_ vernments on Jnly I ... 1885. These were 

ied in matters of secondary consideration, 

by - _ :ed in Brussels on the 15th of December 

in the same year and ratified »n December the 10th. 15^-. 

JfCK. 

The Extraordin: : Pleuipoter.: 

of the French Republic ~ed in Mexico on the _4th 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 31 

of March, 1882, made known the desire of his o- v- 
ernment to celebrate a treaty of commerce and naviga- 
tion with the Republic of Mexico. Various difficulties 
arose when the general grounds of the negotiation had 
been scarcely initiated and considered, and then the 
impossibility of accepting the preliminary agreement pro- 
posed by Mr. Coutouly for the government of the de- 
liberations and consideration of the treaty proper — in 
which agreement a stipulation was contained relative to 
the treatment of the most favored nation by both parties 
without restrictions of any kind — prevented a definite ar- 
rangement for the time being. 

In this connection the " Diario Oficial " of the 22nd of 
April, 1885, said that " the principal difficulty in the way of 
a treaty of commerce with France would disappear when 
the French government would do away with the pro- 
visional character of the conference ; when France would 
not insist that the national treaty should secure the right 
for French vessels to land at Mexican ports, as our govern- 
ment was positively determined not to grant this immuuitv 
from the payment of duties, to the ships of any nation, to 
the evident injury of Mexican vessels. 

Negotiations having been resumed, it became possible to 
conclude with the French Republic, the treaty of friend- 
ship and commerce which was signed in Mexico on the 
27th of November, 1886, and ratified the 5th of May, 1888. 
It would remain in force from the 14th of March, 1888, the 
date of mutual ratification, to February 1st, 1892. 

GREAT BRITAIN. 

The resumption of diplomatic relations between Mexico 
and Great Britain, interrupted during more than twenty 
years, was arranged in the same manner as with France, by 
unofficial intimations of a confidential character dating from 



32 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

December ,1882. Mr. Velasco, Mexican Minister in Paris, 
had some conversation upon the subject with Lord Lyons, 
the English ambassador, whereby the representative of En- 
gland was led to understand that if the diplomatic relations 
should be resumed, the Mexican government would not 
allow an arrangement of the indebtedness known as the 
London Debt, to be considered, or the arrangement of the 
indebtedness adjusted in 1851, which should be considered 
at the proper time. 

In February, 1883, Mr. Lionel Garden, English vice- 
consul in Havana, made known, in Mexico, to Mr. Mariscal 
in an unofficial manner, that his government desired to 
know what obstacles prevented the renewal of relations 
between the two countries. The Minister of Affairs an- 
swered that, in his opinion, up to that time, the principal 
difficulties had been : 

1st. The question of etiquette as to who should assume 
the initiative. 

2d. The opposition on the part of the holders of bonds 
in London to the renewal of diplomatic relations without a 
previous settlement of their claims. 

3d. The declaration of the Mexican government that the 
treaty concluded with England in 1826 (as well as the 
others in the same connection) had become inoperative by 
reason of the part taken by said country in the inter- 
vention of 1861, and 

4th. The declaration of the same government that for 
the same reason, the agreement of 1851 relating to the 
payment of certain English claims, had also become in- 
operative. 

In May following, Mr. Mariscal received a note dated 
April 19th, in which Lord Granville, Her Majesty's minis- 
ter of Foreigu Affairs, made known that his government 
would gladly take the first step towards there renewal of 
relations, hoping that such action would be appreciated by 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 33 

the government and people of Mexico, and proposing 
that special envoys be sent simultaneously to London and 
Mexico by each party respectively, who would assume the 
conduct of negotiations. 

When the note was answered on May the 18th, by ac- 
cepting the proposal in the name of the President, confer- 
ences were held in Mexico for the purpose of arranging the 
preliminaries, which were subscribed to on the 6th of 
August, approved by the Senate on October the 20th and 
published on the 27th of the same month. 

Since July, 1884, the British envoy had been expressing a 
wish to enter into a treaty of friendship, commerce and 
navigation with Mexico and, although a Plenipotentiary ad 
hoc had been appointed by the President to discuss the mat- 
ter presented, negotiations were suspended owing to a lack 
of sufficiently ample instructions on the part of the English 
representative to give his assent to certain clauses which the 
Republic regarded as essential. 

The difficulties having been overcome, the treaty was con- 
cluded and signed on the 27th of November, 1888, and 
ratified on February the 15th, 1889. 

In accordance with article fourteen of this treaty, its 
stipulations are to be applied to all the colonies and foreign 
possessions of her Brittanic Majesty, in so far as the laws 
permit, with the exception of India, the Canadian 
Dominion, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Victoria, 
Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, 
New Zealand, the Cape and Natal ; being applicable, how- 
ever, to the colonies mentioned or to foreign possessions 
in whose interest notice may be given, for that purpose, 
by the representative of her Brittanic Majesty, to the 
Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Eepublic, within two 
years from the date of ratification by both countries. 

In compliance with this condition, the British Legation 
has given notice that the British colonies which accepted 

3 



34 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the treaty were: Natal, Tasmania, Western Australia, 
Victoria, Newfoundland, Southern Australia, and the 
Colony of Queensland, and that the Dominion of Canada, 
the Cape of Good Hope and the colony of New Zealand 
desired to be excepted from its stipulations. 



THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. 

In view of the favorable disposition evinced by Japan to 
establish commercial relations with the Republic, the Pres- 
ident commissioned the Mexican Minister at Washington 
and sent him the necessary instructions, to have an under- 
standing with the representatives of that empire for the 
negotiation of a treaty of friendship, commerce and nav- 
igation. This treaty was signed in the American capital 
on the 30th of November, 1888, and ratified on June the 
14th, 1889. 

EQUADOR. 

The treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation exist- 
ing between the Republic of Mexico and that of Equator 
was concluded and signed in Washington on July the 16th, 
1888; ratified October 28th, 1890, and the mutual 
exchange of ratification took place November 26th of the 
same year. Its duration is ten years. 



THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 

The treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation in 
force between Mexico and the Dominican republic, was 
signed in Mexico on March 29th, 1890, and ratified on the 
12th of December in the same year. It will last five years 
dating from the 11th of July, 1891, when it was mutually 
ratified. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 35 



ITALY. 

The period having expired for the duration of the treaty 
of commerce and navigation of December the 14th, 1870, 
between the republic and the kingdom of Italy, during 
which a new one was being negotiated, both governments 
agreed to an extension which should expire on June the 
30th, 1884. The new treaty was signed in Mexico on the 
16th of April, 1890, ratified on the 6th of July, 1891, and 
mutually approved on the 23rd of the same month. Its 
duration is to be for ten years, counted from the last date 
and its stipulations are to be applicable to the colonies or 
foreign possessions of Italy in whose favor notice may be 
given, for this purpose, by the Italian representative in 
Mexico to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the republic, 
during the life-time of the treaty. 

UNITED STATES. 

Several commercial treaties have been negotiated with 
the republic of the United States, but they never became 
operative owing to a lack of ratification or to other causes. 
That is what happened to the treaty negotiated by Mr. 
Forsyth, American Minister to Mexico, with the govern- 
ment of this nation in 1857, in which great concessions were 
made to the United States in the isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
and with the commercial reciprocity treaty known as that 
of McLane-Ocampo, which granted privileges to both 
nations. 

At the close of 1882 the Secretary of Affairs designated 
two commissioners, who, jointly with those of the United 
States, might arrange a treaty of commercial reciprocity 
between the two republics. 

On the 20th of January, 1883, the agreement was con- 
cluded in Washington, Messrs. Matias Romero and 



36 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Estanislao Cafiedo having conducted the negotiations on 
behalf of Mexico, and General U. S. Grant and W. H. 
Prescot on behalf of the United States. It was ratified 
with some modifications by the United States Senate on the 
11th of March, 1884. The modifications were, that to make 
the agreement operative it should be necessary for the 
Congress of the United States and for the government of 
Mexico to enact, beforehand, the laws required for its exe- 
cution and that the respective measures should be taken 
within sixteen months from the date of ratification by both 
parties. These modifications having been approved, the 
treaty was ratified, on the 14th of May, 1884, by the Mexi- 
can Senate. The respective legislation not having been en- 
acted by the two governments the period of sixteen months 
was extended by means of a protocol, signed in Washing- 
ton on the 25th of February, 1885, to the 20th of May, 
1886 and, by a supplementary document dated May, 14th, 
1886, a still further extension to May the 20th, 1887, was 
granted. As no further extension of the period last desig- 
nated has been given, a new instrument will be necessary 
to resurrect the previous treaty. 

EXTRADITION TREATIES. 

The United States. 

IV. The treaty of December 11th, 1861, for the extradi- 
tion of criminals, in force between Mexico and the United 
States, has presented difficulties in practice. Criminals 
who commit an offense in Mexico elude justice by crossing 
to American territory, where it has been impossible to 
secure their surrender, for the reason that the accused have 
recourse to the writ of habeas corpus, of which the 
Supreme Court and other tribunals of that country have 
jurisdiction, and the government officials have refused to 
surrender the criminals, or for the reason that the govern- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 37 

merit has thought that the text of one of the articles of the 
treaty, declaring that the extradition of its own subjects 
was not obligatory on either of the contracting parties, 
forbade the surrender to the Mexican authorities of Amer- 
ican-born citizens accused of crime and wanted by the 
Mexican government. 

In the correspondence which passed between the two 
governments Mexico has sought to demonstrate that ex- 
tradition is an exalted administrative act pertaining to the 
Executive by virtue of a compact between the two nations 
and that, a treaty being a law for the countries by which 
the stipulation was entered into, its enforcement cannot be 
subject to a previous review by judicial authority; that, 
finally, in regard to the extradition of native-born citizens 
the treaty does not deny but concedes to the Executive the 
right to grant it whenever he may deem it advisable. 

The President of the American Union has declared that 
it was his sincere conviction that the crimes committed on 
both sides of the frontier should not go unpunished, and 
has also indicated various methods to give force to the 
treaty of extradition so that its opportune and energetic 
enforcement may afford the necessary protection and guar- 
anty to the border populations of each country. With 
such intentions a new treaty has been negotiated whereby 
the disputes arising from the enforcement of that of 1861 
should be avoided. By this it has been declared in an in- 
contestible manner that both governments can exchange 
their native-born citizens when necessity may arise for not 
allowing criminals to go unpunished, and that certain rules 
should be established in regard to the time during which a 
prisoner accused of crime may be held while legal proceed- 
ings are pending and while the question of extradition is 
being settled. 

The treaty mentioned, which was concluded in Washing- 
ton on February 20th, 1885, underwent important altera- 



38 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

tions on the part of both governments and it became 
necessary again to consider it, but nothing has resulted 
from such consideration up to the present time. 

Kecently( January 18th, 1892) the Government of Mexico, 
in conformity with its policy of facilitating tbe demands of 
justice of the United States, has issued an important circu- 
lar, through the medium of the Department of Foreign 
Affairs, in which it is founded that when demand has been 
made by the United States of America for the extradition 
of any individual, even though the latter should claim to be 
a Mexican citizen at the time such demand is made, he must 
be detained and closely guarded and held subject to the 
disposition of the Department in question, but must not be 
delivered up except by express request of the President of 
the Republic, communicated through the Department of 
Foreign Affairs. In the meanwhile the required authority 
will take the preliminary steps to institute judicial pro- 
ceedings or request that he be instructed by competent 
judicial authority in order that the nationality of the pre- 
sumed criminal may be determined. 

The result must be communicated to the Department of 
Foreign Affairs, accompanied by a copy of the judicial pro- 
ceedings, in order that the final action, may be taken. 

Belgium. 

The government of Belgium consulted that of the Re- 
public as to whether it felt disposed to conclude a treaty of 
extradition with that kingdom, and the government of 
Mexico having expressed its willingness, the Envoy Extraor- 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Belgium submitted 
a proposition which, with a few modifications, was signed 
in Mexico on the 12th day of May, 1881, and approved by 
the Mexican Senate on the 24th of November of the same 
year. On the 14th of March, 1882, the treaty having been, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 39 

previously, mutually ratified, the proper publication was 
made whereby effect was given to the treaty. 

The agreement was entered into for five years to date 
from its ratification on March 13th, 1882, and to go into 
operation three months after the date of ratification. It 
was to remain in force twelve months from the time when 
either of the two governments should express a wish that 
the treaty should terminate. 

Spain. 

A treaty of like character was arranged between Mexico 
and Spain and by them approved on November the 17th, 
1881. The same was mutually ratified on March the 3d, 1883, 
in consequence of an extension having been granted of the 
time mentioned therein for such purpose. The treaty was 
promulgated in Mexico on the 4th of the same month. Its 
duration is indefinite as it will only cease to be effective 
when either of the contracting parties terminate the 
same by twelve months' notice of a wish to do so. This 
was the first treaty arranged with Spain after the can- 
cellation of those in force on account of the war of inter- 
vention. 

Great Britain. 

A treaty of extradition also exists with the kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, which was signed in Mexico on 
September the 7th, 1886, approved by Congress on Decem- 
ber the 10th, 1887, and by her Britannic Majesty on 
December the 10th of the same year; the respective docu- 
ments being exchanged in Mexico on the 22nd of January, 
1889. This treaty is of indefinite duration and can only 
be terminated by one of the contracting parties on a 
notice of not less than six months and of not more than a 
year. 



40 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 

Telegraphic Arrangement between Mexico and Guatemala. 

V. On the 5th of February, 1887, an agreement relative to 
telegraphic communication was signed in Mexico by these 
republics, in which it was stipulated that a telegraphic 
station should be established at Nenton in Guatemala ter- 
ritory close to the station of that country for the purpose 
of effecting the immediate transmission of dispatches 
addressed to one or the other republic, or of those which it 
may be necessary to forward to other countries through 
their respective territories. This agreement went into 
effect on the first of June in the same year when it was 
mutually ratified. 

International Agreement Relative to the Publication of 
Custom House Duties. 

By a decree of the 31st of October, 1890, the Mexican 
Senate approved the agreement signed in Brussels on the 
5th of July of the same year by the respective delegates, 
for the establishment of an international union, having for 
its object the publication in the several countries comprised 
in such union of the custom house duties of the different 
countries of the globe, together with subsequent changes 
and modifications. The agreement went into effect on the 
1st of April, 1891, and will remain in force for seven years. 
If the agreement should not be canceled twelve months 
prior to the expiration of such period, it will continue in 
force seven years longer and so on, for every seven years. 
The revocation of the contract shall be addressed to the 
Belgian government and will only affect the country mak- 
ing it, the agreement remaining in force for the other 
nations comprised in the union. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 41 

CLAIMS. 

United States. 

VI. On July the 4th, 1868, an agreement was entered into 
between Mexico and the United States for the purpose of 
deciding the claims made by citizens of Mexico against the 
United States and vice versa for losses sustained subsequent 
to February the 2d, 1848. By this agreement a mixed com- 
mission was established composed of one Mexican and one 
American and a third party to be selected by these two 
>intly who should decide in case of a disagreement between 
the other two. The commission was to remain in existence 
for two years and six months from the date of its first 
session. On the 19th of April, 1871, the agreement was 
continued to January 31st, 1873, but not being able to 
terminate its labors in this interval, a new contract, en- 
tered into on November the 27th, 1872, extended the time 
for two years more. On November the 20th, 1874, a 
further extension was granted to January the 31st, 1876, 
granting to the Board of Arbitration, for the purpose of 
deciding the cases submitted to it, a still further extension 
to November the 20th of the same year, when the commis- 
sion completed its labors. 

The sum total demanded of Mexico amounted to $470,- 
126,613.40 but indemnity was granted only to American 
claimants in different kinds of money to the value of 
$4,125,622.20. 

The indemnities demanded by Mexicans amounted to 
$86,661,891.15 but they were allowed in different kinds of 
money, only $150,498.41. 

Mexico, by reason of the stipulations contained in the 
agreement of July, 1868, had therefore to pay to the 
American government annual installments of $300,000 in 
gold or its equivalent, to begin on January the 31st, 1877, 



42 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

and to continue till the final liquidation of the difference 
between the indemnities granted to the citizens of the two 
republics. 

Among the claims adjudicated against Mexico there are 
two of such a character that the board which made the 
award expressed a desire that they should be reconsidered. 
One of these is that of Benjamin Weil for the alleged con- 
fiscation of 1,914 bales of cotton, for which Mexico was 
condemned to pay $487,810.68; the other, that of the 
mining company known as " La Abra " for the pretended 
forced abandonment of a business which, having been 
really abandoned as unproductive, was made the basis of a 
claim against Mexico and by the subornation of witnesses 
and by means of criminal proceedings, secured for those 
who hatched the scheme, a favorable award in the sum of 
$683,041.32. 

The Mexican government which possessed sufficient 
proofs to evidently demonstrate the fraudulent character 
of said claims, succeeded, after six years of incessant 
effort, in concluding an agreement which was signed in 
Washington on July the 13th, 1882, and was approved by 
the Mexican Senate on the 7th of October in the same 
year. By virtue of this agreement the claims mentioned 
were to be subjected to a new investigation and revision ; 
the decree of the commission which had officiated in ac- 
cordance with the agreement of 1868 in relation to the 
payments not made by Mexico prior to January 31st, 1882, 
to be null and void. 

Necessaiy investigation having been made in a perfectly 
impartial manner, the majority of the commission presented 
a report, as a result of their researches, declaring that the 
claim was of a fraudulent character based upon false proofs. 
One of the parties interested in this claim demanded of the 
Secretary of State at Washington why he did not ma'ke a 
distribution of the sums deposited to the credit of this 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 43 

claimant and his associates, but his demand was rejected by 
the proper tribunal. 

In January, 1890, the last payment of $74,138 was made 
in liquidation of the final installment on the part of 
Mexico, in compliance with the agreement of 1868, the 
entire claim of the United States, amounting to n'early 
$4,000,000, being thus canceled, leaving to Mexico the hope 
of recovering, without doubt, the amount represented by 
the fraudulent claims of Weil and " La Abra." 



Spain. 

A diplomatic incident which occurred in 1883 served to 
demonstrate once more the strength of the friendship ex- 
isting between Spain and Mexico, for, notwithstanding that 
it was indispensable for the Kepublic to enter upon the con- 
sideration of the question raised by the Spanish Minister, 
he made no concession, in accordance with the frankness 
with which he has always conducted his international policy. 
Mr. Mariscal, Minister of Foreign Affairs, expresses 
himself in the following manner in relation to this inci- 
dent : — 

" Mr. Crespo, in connection with the action taken by the 
Senate Chamber on the 13th of June, 1883, approving the 
legal enactment whereby tne Executive was empowered to 
undertake the adjustment of the National Debt, sent a 
note dated the 17th, of the same month, to our Secretary of 
Affairs, declaring, on behalf of his government, that the 
latter considered the contract entered into between Mexico 
and Spain on November the 12th, 1853, as in force at the 
time, without prejudice to the holders of bonds to exercise 
full freedom in presenting or not presenting their claims 
in connection with the projected agreement, their rights 
to be reserved in the latter event. On the 26th of the 
following month answer was made that the Mexican 



44 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

government had maintained and would always maintain 
the non-continuance of said agreement for the follow- 
ing reasons, among others: 1st. That when the republic 
was re-established in 1867 the legislative and ex- 
ecutive authorities declared the old contracts void which 
had been entered into with the European Powers that had 
made war on Mexico. 2nd. That this announcement was 
not in conflict with the practice of nations but in conformity 
therewith and especially with the practice of Spain. 3rd. 
That in discussing with Spain the resumption of diplomatic 
relations, information was obtained from three different 
sources, the government of the United States, his Ex- 
cellency General Prin and from Mr. Mobellan, that the 
basis of such resumption would be the cessation of the old 
contracts between Mexico and Spain. 4th. That Spain ac- 
cepted this basis as, in 1871, she sent, without raising any 
objection thereto, his Excellency Don Feliciauo Herreros 
deFejada as minister to Mexico, and 5th. That this gentle- 
man signed a protocol with the Minister of Affairs (my- 
self) in which he acknowledged that diplomatic relations 
had been resumed upon such basis. 

Mr. Crespo or his government not having insisted, 
either from conviction or because of a frendly deference, 
upon the claims made in the note to which I refer, the 
incident led to no consequences." 

Guatemala. 

On January the 26th, 1888, an agreement was entered 
into with the republic of Guatemala relative to claims 
made by each country, and on the 15th of Febuary, 1889, 
a protocol was signed for the purpose of removing difficult- 
ies arising in Guatemala upon a review of the contract 
of January 26th, of which the two first articles had to be 
corrected. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 45 

The Mexican Senate approved the corrective agreement 
on the 22d of November, 1889, and, on the 2d of the fol- 
lowing month, the alterations made in said agreement by 
an enactment of the legislative assembly of Guatemala on 
May the 31st, 1889 ; and the action thus taken was mutu- 
ally ratified on January the 18th, 1890. 

A mixed commission is established by this agreement 
consisting of two individuals designated respectively by the 
President of each republic with the understanding that no 
claims shall be admitted, based upon events occurring 
prior to 1873, as the claims based upon prior occurrences 
or arising from losses and injuries inflicted in disputed 
territory before the boundaries of the two republics had 
been definitely determined (granting it to be impossible 
to decide the legality of such events without determining 
to which of the two nations the territory belonged in which 
they occurred), should be referred by the commissioners to 
their respective governments, to be adjusted, at the instance 
of the interested parties, by the ordinary authorities 
according to law, without recourse to diplomatic action 
unless where justice may be denied. The mixed commis- 
sion when occasion may require, shall take cognizance of 
the exceptions raised, including the claim of prescription, 
deciding them in accordance with general legal principles. 
The commission convened and began its work on July the 
30th, 1890. 

ECONOMIC REGULATIONS. 

The development of the diplomatic and commercial re- 
lations of Mexico with other countries led to a reorganiza- 
tion of the different departments of the Secretaryship of 
Affairs, a new commercial department having been created 
in which all matters pertaining to the consular service of 
the Republic and to the protection of its commerce abroad, 
were to be centered, in accordance with the provisions fixed 



46 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

by the regulations of February the 11th, 1884, 'for the 
internal management of the Department of Foreign Affairs. 
This Department embraces all the commercial data sent t@ 
the secretary periodically by the consular agents, — an 
aggregation which makes known our commercial require- 
ments with other nations. 

The decree of January the 24th, 1854, relative to exemp- 
tions from customs duty in favor of diplomatic agents has 
been subjected to considerable changes. The Secretary of 
Affairs took sufficient notice of the suggestions made by 
the foreign diplomatic agents residing in Mexico to exempt 
from the payment of customs duties certain goods intended 
for their special use and initiated a measure by virtue of 
which the Secretary of the Treasury secured the enactment 
of the 22d of May, 1885, whereby the concessions indi- 
cated are clearly defined in the most appropriate manner. 

The Secretary of Affairs submitted a measure of impor- 
tance to the National Congress on the 15th of October, 

1885, accompanying it by a bill relating to citizenship of 
foreigners based upon a communication of Mr. Vallarta 
and submitted for the purpose to the Secretary. 

After some modifications the bill became a law on May 
the 28th, 1886, and was classified as an enactment con- 
cerning citizenship and naturalization. 

MEXICAN DIPLOMATIC BODY. 

VII. In accordance with a law dated the 7th of March, 

1886, regulating the Mexican diplomatic body, the relations 
of the Republic with foreign governments are intrusted to the 
following kinds of missions: Special and Plenipotentiary 
missions : Extraordinary Plenipotentiary Legations or merely 
Plenipotentiary ones : Resident Minister Legations : Charge 
d' Affaires Legations. The President of the Republic is 
the person who appoints the agents and diplomatic employes 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 47 

and also with the Senate's approbation the heads of mis- 
sions. It is the President who directs diplomatic negotia- 
tions through the secretaryship of State and of the Foreign 
Affairs Office. To this secretaryship all the diplomatic 
bodies of Mexico are subject ; to it they all look for their 
instructions as well as for the approval or disapproval of 
their acts. 

The personnel of the diplomatic missions is made up of 
the following functionaries and employes: 

I. Special Envoys and Plenipotentiary Ministers, Extra- 
ordinary Envoys and Plenipotentiary Ministers. 

II. Resident Ministers. 

III. Charge d'Affaires. 

IV. Charge d'Affaires ad interim (temporary). 

V. First secretaries. 

VI. Second and third secretaries. 

VII. Aggregates. 

The secretaries who as substitutes perform the duties of 
a head of a mission, during the latter 's absence or sickness, 
are the Charges d'Affaires ad interim, and to undertake 
such a charge they do not need the Senate's approbation. 
When cases of that kind arise the duties of the first secre- 
tary are fulfilled by the second and so on successively, but 
all such duties are of an accidental and temporary charac- 
ter and do not imply any promotion. The aggregates or 
supernumeraries do not receive any salary and are bound 
to engage themselves to follow a diplomatic career when 
the government appoints military or naval aggregates to 
missions, as it may sometimes deem convenient ; they must 
be officers in the army or navy and have no duties except 
their military and naval studies and must give due attention 
to etiquette. They have no right to take precedence as 
belonging to the diplomatic body. Promotions from the 
position of Aggregate to that of Charge d'Affaires are 
strictly given to priority of age. 



48 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The salaries of the heads of missions and diplomatic 
employes, as well as the official and extraordinary expenses 
of each Legation are settled in the first place by the law 
which establishes the mission, and afterwards by the law 
regulating the estimates. Diplomatic ministers sent to 
Europe and the United States receive for their traveling and 
household expenses ten thousand dollars, whilst those 
destined for what was formerly Spanish America eight 
thousand, which amount is equally divided between the 
two above mentioned purposes. For the expenses of their 
return voyage to the Republic they receive a like sum. The 
first, second and third secretaries of Legations have for the 
expenses of their journey to their destination the half of 
their respective yearly salaries and this amount they re- 
ceive on starting from the Republic. They receive a third 
part of their yearly salaries when transferred from one Le- 
gation to another. For their return journey expenses they 
receive the same amount as is given for their outward 
journey. The secretaries charged with ad interim affairs 
enjoy half of the salary appointed for the ministers whose 
places they take ; and if the substitute be a first secretary 
and hold the position service economy, the extraordinary 
expenses of the secretaryship, accounts with the general 
treasury: to publish and forward requisitorial letters re- 
ceived from abroad and also those sent from the Republic to 
foreign countries ; the general record of the nation ; all 
matters which do not pertain to the other sections. The 
cash which comes into the secretaryship either by reason 
of the dues exacted by it, or which enters by any other 
title is kept under double locks and keys and in the custody 
of the Chancellor in such place as the superior official 
designates. A special writer indites all the cabinet letters 
and all other diplomatic documents which require more 
care and attention then the ordinary ones. 

The Translators attached to the Chancellorship trans- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 49 

late all documents, pamphlets or newspaper articles required 
by any section according as the superior official directs 
and when they happen to have no translation to do they are 
employed as ordinary clerks. 

The Port Official or sorter has under his charge the 
entry of the documents of every kind which come in or o-o 
out. These he notes separately, clearly and with precision, 
selecting the essential points of their contents and advising 
thereof the section or department to which they rio-htly 
belong and to which he is bound under the strictest re- 
sponsibility to send them without delay ; he copies under 
the direction of the superior official into their respective 
books the consents given by the President at ministerial 
meetings and those which he gives with reference to this 
particular secretaryship. 

Record and Library Section.— The duties of this sec- 
tion are : to keep in perfect order all the documents which 
already exist in it and those which enter it from other sec- 
tions as completed documents, all of which must be 
formed into books under the headings and according 
to the subjects they treat of, to make a collection of 
the national and foreign periodicals received in the sec- 
retaryship to gather together the laws, decrees and 
regulations issued from the other secretaryships of State 
and to have them circulated in foreign countries, to collect 
and forward publications intended for exchange with other 
governments as also to receive and compile the ones sent 
by the latter ; the preservation and proper arrangement of 
the library ; to look after its catalogues aud indexes. Within 
this last duty are comprised the Geographical Charts, plans 
and papers relating to the boundary lines of the Republic; 
to supply the secretary, superior official and the depart- 
mental and sectional principals with the books and docu- 
ments they may need for the dispatch of business; no book 
or paper belonging to the records must be parted with nor 

4 



50 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

must a partial or entire copy be given to any person, ex- 
cept those mentioned, without a special order from the 
secretary or superior official. When cases arise where it 
is necessary to allow a book or documentary record to leave 
the library, in addition to a statement of such act being 
placed in the book or document itself, another book must be 
put in the place from which it was taken, notifying the same 
thing. It is also a duty of this section to take care to de- 
mand from other secretaryships, whenever necessary, a due 
number of copies of all the laws and regulations issued by 
them and the latter are bound to supply such copies if 
they are meant for circulation or to form the collection of 
records. 

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION. 

Mexico has diplomatic representation in Germany, 
Belgium, Spain, Portugal, France, England, Italy, United 
States and Central America. 

The following Powers are represented in Mexico : Great 
Britain, Dominican Republic, Germany, Belgium, United 
States, Spain, France, Costa Rica, Italy and Republic 
Argentina. 

CONSULAR AGENCIES. 

There are Consular Agents of Mexico in the following 
cities : — 

Europe. 

Germany, at Bremen, Berlin, Frankfort on the Main, 
Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Mannheim and Mayence. 

Belgium, at Amberes Brussels, and Gheut. 

Denmark, Saint Thomas. 

Spain, Alicant, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cadiz, C6rdoba, 
Corunua, Ferrol Gijon, Granada, Havana, Huelva, Jerez de 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 51 

la Frontera, Irun, Las Palmas, Madrid, Malaga, Manila, 
Palma de Mallorca, Porto Rico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 
Santa Maria, Santander, San Sebastian, Santiago de Cuba, 
Sevilla, Valencce and Vigo. 

France, atBayon»ne,Bourdeaux, Fort de France, Havre, 
Marseilles, Nice, Paris, St. Jean de Luz y Hendaya, St. 
Nazaire and St. Malo. 

England, at Barrow-in-Furness, Bridgetown, Cardiff, 
Dover, Dublin, Faltmouth, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Great 
Grimsby, Hong-Kong, Liverpool, London, Manchester, 
Montreal, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Newport, Mon, Southampton 
and Swansea. 

Italy, at Florence, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo 
and Rome. 

Low countries, at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 

Portugal, Lisbon and Oporto. 

Sweden and Norway, at Gotemburgo and Stockholm. 

Switzerland at Geneva and Vevey. 

America . 

United States, at Boston, Brownsville, Chicago, Dem- 
ing, Eagle Pass, El Paso, Philadelphia, Galveston, Kansas 
City, Laredo, Los Angeles, Nogales, New Orleans, New 
York, Pansacola, Rio Grande City, Roma, San Antonio, 
San Francisco, San Diego, St. Louis, Mo., and Tucson. 

Columbia, at Bogota, Colon and Panama. 

Guatemala, at Guatemala, Libertad, Quetzaltenango 
and Retalhuleo. 

Salvador, San Salvador. 

Venezuela, at Caracas, Carupano, La Guayra and 
Maracaibo. 

Argentina, at Buenos Aires. 

Bolivia, at La Paz. 

Costa Rica, at San Jose. 

Chili, at Valparaiso. 



52 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Dominican Republic, at Santo Domingo. 
Equator, at Guayaquil and Quito. 
Uruguay, at Montevideo. 
Haiti, at Port-au-Prince. 

Oceania, 
Hawaii, at Honolulu. 



FOREIGN CONSULAR AGENCIES IN MEXICO. 

The representatives of the foreign powers in the Kepub- 
lic of Mexico are residing in the following cities : — 

Europe. 

Germany, has representatives in Acapulco, Carmen 
(Island), Chihuahua, Colima, Durango, Guadalajara, 
Guanajuato, Guaymas, Mazatlan, Merida, Mexico, Mon- 
terey, Morelia, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Tampico, 
Tehuantepec, Chiapas, Tepic and Veracruz. 

Belgium, at Acapulco, Carmen (Island), Mazatlan, 
Merida, Mexico, Puebla, Tampico and Veracruz. 

Denmark, Mexico and Veracruz. 

Spain, Carmen (Island), Celaya, Chihuahua, Cuerna- 
vaca, Durango, Guadalajara, Jalapa, La Paz, Matamoros, 
Mazatlan, Merida, Progreso, Mexico, Morelia, Monterey, 
Oaxaca, Puebla, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi, San Juan- 
Bautista, Tampico, Tehuantepec, Tepic, Tuxpan and 
Veracruz. 

France, Acapulco, Carmen (Island), Guanajuato, 
Guadalajara, Jicaltepec, San Rafael, Mazatlan, Merida, 
San Luis Potosi, Saltillo, Tampico, Tehuantepec, Tonala, 
Tuxpan and Veracruz. 

England, Carmen (Island), Mexico, Guaymas, Minatit- 
lan, Mezatlan, Progreso, Tepic and Veracruz. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 53 

Italy, Carmen (Island), Mazatlan, Monterey, Puebla, 
Tampico and Veracruz. 

Low countries, Veracruz. 
* Portugal, Carmen (Island), Mexico, Oaxaca and San 
Lutis Potosi. 

Sweden and Norway, Carmen (Island), Frontera, Gua- 
dalajara, Guaymas, Laguna de Terminos, Merida, Mexico, 
Minatitlan, Progreso, San Juan-Bautista, Tampico and 
Veracruz. 

Switzerland, Mexico. 

America. 

United States of America, Acapulco, Altata, Bahia, 
Magdalena, Camargo, Campeche, Chihuahua, Ciudad- Vic- 
toria, Coatzacoalcos, Durango, Ensenada, Frontera, Garita 
Gonzales, Guadalupe y Calvo, Guanajuato, Guaymas, Guer- 
rero (Tamaulipas), La Paz, Laguna de Terminos, Man- 
zanillo, Matamoros, Mazatlan, Merida, Mexico, Mier, 
Minatitlan, Monterrey, Nogales, Nuevo Laredo, Paso del 
Norte, Piedras Negras, Punta de Santa Cruz, Sal-tillo, San 
Benito (Chiapas), San Bias, San Jose, San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico, Tehuantepec, Salina Cruz, Tuxpan, Veracruz 
and Zacatecas. 

Guatemala, Acapulco, Guadalajara, Hermosillo, Mexico, 
Tapachula (Chiapas), Tanpico and Veracruz. 

Honduras, Mexico and Veracruz. 

Nicaragua, Acapulco. 

Peru, Mexico aud Mazatlan. 

Paraguay, Mexico. 

Salvador, Acapulco and Veracruz. 

Santo Domingo, Mexico. 

Venezuela, Mexico, Tampico and Veracruz. 

Argentina, Mexico. 

Columbia, Acapulco, Mexico, Tampico and Veracruz. 

Costa Rica, Guaj'mas and Veracruz. 



54 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



Chili, Mazatlan, Mexico and Veracruz. 
Equator, Guaymas and Mexico. 

Oceania. 
Hawaii, Manzanillo and Mexico. 




BRIDGE OF " WILD RATTAN " OVER THE RIVER NEXACA. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 55 



CHAPTER II. 

INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. 

I. One of the most important works realized in this 
Department since the pacification of the Republic is the re- 
organization of the public powers of the Union and those 
of the States. 

With general good effect the department has since then 
directed the home policy of the country, pushing forward 
on the road to public peace and harmony between the 
central government and that of the States. Thus it has 
taken the initiative in important reforms and introduced 
improvements in nearly all of the branches dependent upon 
it, such as public charities, security and health, the drainage 
of- the valley of the city of Mexico, the penitentiary of the 
District, etc., etc., which works will be treated of in their 
proper place. 

Although the department of intercourse and public 
works has now, since the 13th of May, 1891, change of the 
postal service, yet it has been deemed convenient to treat 
upon that branch in this chapter, inasmuch as the principal 
reforms introduced into this most important service of 
public administration have, in conformity with the decree 
of April 21st, 1882, without exception, been introduced by 
the government department. 

The above mentioned are the works detailed in this 
chapter, in which will also be included with distinction the 
labors continued by the new department. 

POSTAL SERVICE. 

II. Ruled as it was by the ordinance of the viceroys and 
by other resolutions issued at that period, the postal service 



/ 



56 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

could not be but a most irregular one whilst working under 
a legislature, not only complicated, but inconsistent with 
the actual order of things in the country. 

Hence it became urgently necessary to adopt, for the 
convenience of the Postal Service, a system that would suit 
the social conditions of the country and answer the purposes 
of the increase of its population, as well as display greater 
activity on its commercial and industrial fields. This the 
Department of Interior proposed to do by introducing, 
on the 8th of December, 1881, in the House of Deputies, a 
bill to that effect. When this bill had passed, Congress 
published, on the 21st of April, 1882, a decree authorizing 
the President of theEepublic to introduce the much needed 
reform bearing upon the Postal Service. 

The labors of the special commission appointed to draw 
up the project to that end were fiuished in October of that 
same year, and, on the 18th of April of the following year, 
the decree of the reform was published and ordered to be 
put into effect on the 1st of January, 1884. 

Since that date the Postal Service in the United States 
of Mexico is a public one of the Union, and continued to 
depend upon the Interior Department until the 13th of 
May, 1891, when it passed to form part of the Department 
of Intercourse and Public Works, created by the decree of 
that same date. 

The new postal law classifies in the following manner 
the objects which the Post-office undertakes to convey: — 

First. 

WRITTEN CORRESPODENCE. 

This class comprises the official communications, letters, 
and all, or partially so, — manuscripts or writings by means 
of transcribers, writing machines, or other like systems, 
and also all matter sent in closed envelopes having the 
usual appearance of pieces of correspondence. 




MANUEL ROMKKO RUBIO. 
Secretary of the Interior. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 57 

Second. 

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. 

This class comprises publications made on regulation 
sheets issued in intervals of not less than three months and 
furnished with date of issue and number in progressive 
order, publications in the form of printed sheets without 
pasteboard, morocco, leather, linen and other matters used 
in covers ; publications having for their object anything of 
interest to the public, viz. : politics, literature, science, 
art, or special industry ; but excluding all such publications 
as, while fulfilling some of these conditions, still owe their 
existence only to the fact of publishing matters of private 
interest. 

Third. 

ALL PRINTS NOT EMBRACED IN THE FORMER CLASSES 

such as books, official circulars, business papers, publica- 
tions not on newspaper sheets, originals sent to press, 
proofs of printings, with or without corrections, and their 
originals. 

Fourth . 

DIVERSE MATTER. 

In this class is comprised all that matter which, not figur- 
ing in the first, second and third classes, appears suscepti- 
ble, by their bulk, form, weight or nature, to be conveyed 
by the mails. 

The mail does not carry the following objects : — 

1st. Those exceeding in dimensions 20 centimeters in 
length, 10 in breadth and 5 in depth. Nevertheless, when 
objects of greater dimensions do not injure the contents of 
the mail bags, the Postmaster may allow their conveyance. 

2nd. Objects causing customs duties. 



58 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

3rd. Correspondence, prints, objects and parcels the 
weight of which exceeds, in one single bulk, two kilo- 
grams. But books belonging to private industries, docu- 
ments and books of public offices, even if each of these be 
of greater weight, may be admitted, provided their dimen- 
sions do not make their accommodation in the mail bags, 
difficult or impossible or do not damage the objects for the 
conveyance of which the mails are specially destined. 

4th. Bank notes, checks payable to bearer, moneys, 
jewelry, precious stones, liquids, poisons, explosives or 
inflammables, grease stuffs, matters easily meltable, live 
animals, corpses undissected, sweets, pastes, fruits and 
vegetables tending to decompose, and substances emitting 
bad odors. 

5th. Foreign lottery tickets. 

6th. All obscene or immoral matter. 

The postage is paid by means of stamps, and is, as a 
rule, obligatory. Only when the objects are directed to 
countries comprised in the Universal Postal Union is the 
postage optional. 

The correspondence of Federal officers and employes, of 
the powers of the States in their relation with supreme 
powers of the Union, is exempt from the obligation of 
paying postage. But said official correspondence, and the 
objects destined for public service, must go in special 
envelopes or with special stamps. 

The correspondence and objects of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th 
class which are not provided with postage stamps are not 
forwarded. By this are understood the following cases: — 

A. Correspondence directed to countries not comprised in 
the Universal Postal Union, not having been furnished with 
the stamps necessary to cover the total cost of the postage. 

B. Internal correspondence which has not been furnished 
with, at least, the stamps equivalent to the cost of the post- 
age, corresponding to 15 grams, or when more should be 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 59 

paid, the difference between the value of the stamps which 
it carries and the amount it should bear, exceeds the post- 
age corresponding to 30 grams. 

C. Correspondence of the supreme powers of a State 
with the functionaries and employes of same, or with the 
powers of others, when not furnished with, at least, stamps 
equivalent to the postage of 30 grams, or when more should 
be paid, the difference between the value of the stamps it 
bears and the amount it should bear exceeds the postage of 
60 grams. 

D. When official stamps are used for correspondence 
outside the cases for which they are intended. 

E. The objects comprehended in fractions B., C. and D. 
which are not furnished with stamps corresponding to the 
total value of the postage. 

The Post-office always forwards correspondence insuffi- 
ciently provided with postage, thus taking into considera- 
tion the correspondence of private individuals which, having 
stamps equivalent to the postage of 15 grams, should pay 
more by reason of its weight, and the deficiency does not 
exceed the one that corresponds to 30 grams. It also for- 
wards the correspondence of the governments of the States 
with their functionaries and employes, also with those of 
other States, when having stamps to the value of the postage 
of 30 grams, should pay more by reason of its weight, and 
the deficiency does not exceed the postage corresponding to 
60 grams. 

This correspondence is forwarded to its destination, but 
at the time of being delivered to whom it may be directed, 
this person must place, in the presence of the respective 
employe, the stamps corresponding to the double amount 
which has not been paid. 

Postage stamps are the only valuables admitted in order 
to verify the postage of the correspondence and other 
matter conveyed by the Postal Service. In the denomi- 



60 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

nation of postal stamps is understood postal cards, the 
card letters, and the stamped bonds and envelopes. 

The postage and stamped envelopes are of two classes, 
one for the use of the public, and the other for official 
service. The postal letters and cards can be employed as 
well for international service as for internal. 

The stamps should be placed by those interested, and in 
no case by the employes of the administration. 

The Postal Code considers as falsifications of stamps: 
1st. Those who, without the authority of the Government, 
print them or assist in their impression. 2d. Those who 
knowingly place in circulation or keep false stamps in their 
possession. 3d. Those who alter the real stamps, with the 
object of issuing them for a higher valuation. 4th. Those 
who manufacture, help to manufacture, or keep in their 
possession dies, utensils or materials which have for object 
the falsification of stamps. 

The crime of falsification is punished with imprisonment 
of from one to three years, which term is doubled in the case 
of a second offense, and everyone who knowingly employs, 
sells, or intends to sell stamps which have already served for 
postage, incurs a fine of $25 to $100, or a penalty of from 
fifteen days to two months' imprisonment. 

The inviolability of correspondence of private individuals 
is trespassed upon, by opening with intention or malice, or 
by destroying or abstracting from any office of the service, 
any closed piece of correspondence confided to the mails. 

The crime of violating correspondence is punished in 
particular with a penalty of from one to three years im- 
prisonment, doubling the term in case of second offense. 
When the violation of a letter or any sealed packet has 
for object the appropriation of any bank check, bill of 
exchange, or of any document contained in the letter, or 
sheet of paper, or the committal of any other crime, the 
rules of accumulation are observed. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 61 



NEW POSTAL CODE. 



When the new system was adopted, the mechanism of 
dispatch changed materially with the inauguration of new 
offices for the General Administration, with the creation of 
more than a thousand others at convenient points, estab- 
lishment of other postal roads, increase of employes in the 
existing' offices, and with the suppression of the categories 
in the exterior administration, which, with the same char- 
acter and attributions, subordinated themselves directly to 
the General Administration. 

In virtue of the New Postal Code, those codes bearing 
upon the same subject for the State governments were 
suppressed for the circulation of their official correspond- 
ence, and the previous and obligatory postage, the free sale 
of stamps, the postal card system, the uniformity of 
internal postage, etc., etc., were established. 

The tariff formerly in force for the internal service, which 
had for base twenty five-cents postage for each half ounce of 
weight in one letter, was reduced to ten cents for each fifteen 
grams or fraction thereof. Five cents was fixed for the 
value of the stamps of the postal cards to any distance, 
and two cents for the circulation of same in the Urban 
Service. The official correspondence of the States under- 
went, since the 1st of October, 1885, a reduction of postage, 
which is now at three cents for each letter weighing up to 
five grams. 

The publication of periodicals of second-class matter 
taking place in Mexico, and the foreign ones of like char- 
acter, pay four cents each 480 grams or fraction of that 
weight. Pamphlets and other articles of third-class mat- 
ter, as also those of the second which are not forwarded 
by the publishers or their agents, pay one cent for each 
thirty trains or fraction thereof, and articles of fourth-class 
pay two cents for the same weight. 



62 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

As to the countries which are not comprised in the Uni- 
versal Postal Union, the price of postage of the corre- 
spondence and articles is double the appointed one for the 
internal service, and paid for by the person to whom the 
letters or articles are directed. In respect to these coun- 
tries the registry system is not admitted. 

By the Circular of December 31st, of the same 
year, the circulation of elementary books and all classes 
of scientific and literary publications was facilitated, the 
postage being reduced for these articles to one cent for 
each thirty grams ' weight which is now paid. The reform 
was introduced that not only the written correspondence, 
but pamphlets, samples of merchandise, and, in general 
all articles conveyable by the Postal Service, can be regis- 
tered, paying for this right twenty-five cents for each letter 
or parcels without prejudice to classifying each article 
according to its class and paying the price of postage that 
corresponds to it in conformity with the tariff. The 
registry fee is paid by means of postal stamps, which the 
interested party himself must affix to the letter or article 
sent. 

Since the 27th of November, 1885, the postage in the ad- 
ministration of the Northern Boundaries has been reduced 
to the rate of foreign correspondence which is five cents for 
each fifteen grams or fraction thereof, in conformity 
with the Postal Convention, and in order to avoid that the 
inhabitants of the towns on the Mexican border should post 
their letters in the United States, with the object of saving 
100 per cent in the postage. 

By the decree of May 31st, 1885, the ten inspectors of 
Zones, created by the Postal Code, were suppressed, and four 
were created for the public service, whose attributions are 
determined by the law of the 28th of April of the same 
year. 

The Urban Postal Service, inaugurated on the 5th of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 63 

March, 1885, in the city of Mexico and in the outside 
towns of the Federal District, extended finally to sixty-four 
of the principal cities of the Republic. 

ECONOMIC REGULATIONS. 

The Postal Administration of the Federal District pub- 
lished the following on the 30th of December, 1892: — 

The offices of registration shall be open to the public 
from 8 in the morning to 8 at night, both in this admin- 
istration and in the branches of the city, but the post 
boxes are closed at the following hours : For corre- 
spondence both inland and foreign sent by the National 
Mexican Railway and by the Mexico to Nuevo Laredo 
Route: In this office at 11 a. m. In the branch offices at 
10 a. m. 

For correspondence sent by the afternoon posts to the 
States of Puebla, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Hidalgo and 
Mexico by the local trains of the different railways : In 
this office at 1 p. m. In the branch offices at 12 p. m. 

For correspondence sent to the States of the Interior, 
West and North, by the Mexican Central Railway as well 
as to the following States and Territories of the American 
Union: California, New Mexico, Washington, Wyoming, 
Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and 
Arizona and places in the east of Texas : In this office at 
5 p. m. In the branch offices at 4 p. m. 

For correspondence sent to the points at which the Cen- 
tral Railway touches between Mexico and Leon, and for 
the States of Michoacan, Mexico, Guerrero, Morelos, 
Hidalgo, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, Tabasco, 
Campeche and Yucatan and for Cuba : In this office at 8 
p.m. In the branch offices at 7 p. m. 

It is requested that persons, who have to register their 
correspondence, will at once communicate to the adminis- 



64 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

trator any difficulty, delay or obstacle they meet with, 
whether in the respective departments of this office, in the 
city branches or in those outside the Federal District. 
Claims for the acknowledgment of receipts can only be 
made in the respective offices of this administration 
between 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. 

UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION. 

III. A most important reform tending to extend the in- 
ternational communications of Mexico was undoubtedly its 
adhesion to the postal treaty of Berne which was approved 
of by representatives of twenty-one countries on the 9th of 
October, 1874. The government, being invited to send a 
representative to the Congress of the Postal Union which 
would be held in Paris in accordance with article 28 of that 
convention, appointed Mr. Gabino Barreda, Mexican Min- 
ister in Germany, as its representative, empowering him to 
enter into the agreement in conformity with the instruc- 
tions which were at the same time sent to him. 

On the 1st of June, 1878, Mr. Barreda signed the postal 
agreement of the same date and which was approved of by 
the Senate and published on the 10th of December of the 
same year. 

By virtue of this arrangement, the different nations that 
were represented, form under the name of the Universal 
Postal Union, but one single territory for the exchange of arti- 
cles which the postal traffic places in their post-offices. They 
number the opened or closed letters, post-cards, prints of 
whatever kind, documents (papiers d'affaires) and samples of 
merchandise, whilst the nations which supply the transport 
service for the correspondence must be paid the following 
expenses of transit : for land transport 2 francs per kilo- 
gram of letters or post-cards and 25 centimes per kilogram 
of other articles; for sea transport of more than three hun- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 65 

dred miles 15 francs per kilogram of letters or post-cards 
and 1 franc per kilogram of other articles. In cases where 
the sea transport belongs to two or more nations the ex- 
pense may be more than 15 francs per kilogram of letters 
and this duty is divided among the nations interested. The 
expenses of transit are borne by the remitting nation. The 
prices for the carriage of articles by post are fixed as fol- 
lows : for letters 25 centimes if prepaid, if not double, for 
each letter weighing 15 grammes or a fraction of 15 
grammes ; 10 centimes for a post card ; 5 centimes for every 
object or packet of printed matter, documents, and samples 
of merchandise, not exceeding 50 grammes. The lowest 
cost of documents is 25 centimes per packet, and that of 
samples 10 centimes. To these charges may be added 
a further charge of 25 centimes for letters, 5 centimes for 
post-cards and the same amount for other objects whose 
weight is 5 grammes or less, to pay for the cost of sea- 
transit. 

In case of insufficient prepaid postage the deficit is paid 
by the persons to whom the articles are sent and with 
double the amount of the insufficiency. Articles which by 
their natures soil or injure the other correspondence are not 
transmitted ; nor samples which have a merchantable value, 
or exceed 250 grammes in weight or are more than 20 
centimetres long, 10 wide and 5 thick ; nor documents and 
printed matter of any kind weighing more than 2 kilograms ; 
nor articles, with the exception of letters, which have not 
been prepaid at least in part. 

For registered letters there must be paid in addition 
to the ordinary postage, 25 centimes in European States 
and 50 in other countries and these imply the handing of a 
receipt to the remitter and if 25 centimes more are paid, 
the postal authorities are obliged to give a receipt signed by 
the person to whom the article was delivered. In the case 
of the loss of an article which was registered there must be 

5 



66 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

paid to the remitter or at his request to the person to whom 
the article was sent an indemnity of 50 francs by the postal 
authorities in whose territory or in whose sea service the 
article went astray, and if it be impossible to find out which 
is the responsible office, the indemnity must be paid in 
equal parts by both nations. Every claim and indemnity 
lapses after one year reckoned from the delivery of the 
registered article in the post-office. In countries where the 
franc is not the monetary unit the postage is fixed according 
to equivalent values laid down in article 14 of the regulations 
of order and details in which it is determined that in Mexico 
6, 4 and 2 cents are equivalent to 25, 10 and 5 centimes 
respectively. 

The postage of any article sent should be paid by means 
of postage stamps available in the country from which the 
object is sent for the correspondence of private persons. 
The official correspondence which relates to the postal 
service which is exchanged between the postal authorities 
is excepted. 

The money collected for postage belongs to the country 
which collects it : the return of things from the post-office 
brings with it no expense for the persons to whom they are 
returned. 

The sendiug of letters or packets containing gold or 
silver, coin, jewelry and precious articles and objects which 
are subject to duty is forbidden. The time fixed for the 
agreement to be put in execution was the 1st of April, 1879, 
without definite limit, each of the signing parties being 
able to withdraw from the union on giving one year's 
notice. 

POSTAL CONGRESS OF LISBON. 

During the months of February and March, 1885, the first 
postal Congress met at Lisbon in fulfillment of astipulation 
in the previous agreement. Sr. D. Luis Bretony Nedra, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 67 

consul of the Republic in that city, was charged with the 
representation of Mexico. The clauses added to the Postal 
Convention of Paris were approved of by the Senate on 
the 27th of May, 1886. These clauses contain important 
reforms and additions. The free transit of double post- 
cards with answer prepaid was extended throughout the 
whole union, commencing on the 1st of April, 1886, the 
postage of each of the two parts which make up the post- 
cards being 10 centimes of a franc ; the statements of the 
accounts of transit between the countries which form the 
union are made instead of every two years once in every 
three years, taking as their basis the number and weight 
of the objects transmitted in twenty-eight days instead of 
one month ; extra postage is no longer charged for trans- 
mitting answer, post-cards which are cut off from the double 
post-cards and the postage of post-cards having the answer 
prepaid is twenty centimes for the two halves ; it is not 
allowable to send packets of papers or printed documents 
of any class whose weight exceeds two kilograms or when 
any of their sides measure more than 45 centimetres; the 
remitter can have an object withdrawn from the service 
or its directions altered as long as it has not been de- 
livered to the person to whom it is sent, by paying the 
neccessary expenses at the time he asks for its deten- 
tion either by post or telegraph. The detention is 
not obligatory in countries where the legislature does not 
allow the sender to dispose of an article during its journey. 
Articles sent by post may be delivered at the house of the 
receiver by a special employe when the sender so requests 
and pays 30 centimes ; articles so sent are described as 
"express." The dispatch of documents of identity is 
established by virtue of a special treaty between the 
Argentine Republic, Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Luxemburg, 
Mexico, Paraguay, Portugal, Roumania, Switzerland, 
Uruguay and Venezuala. The object of these memoranda 



68 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

is to enable foreigners to obtain without delay their regis- 
tered correspondence at any office in the countries mentioned 
without being obliged to undergo in each case the formali- 
ties which are required to establish the identity of a person 
in the post-offices. The sending of articles of gold and 
silver, precious stones and other valuable objects, is author- 
ized whenever the posting or sending is not forbidden by 
the laws of the country from which they are sent, through 
which they pass or for which they are destined. It was 
also definitely settled at the Congress of Lisbon that the 
values fixed for Mexico of 6, 4 and 2 cents as equiva- 
lent to 25, 10 and 5 centimes should be lowered to 5, 2 and 
1 cent and the new scale of postage for foreign countries 
was issued on the 24th of September, 1885. 

POSTAL CONVENTIONS. 

United Slates 

IV. The notable increase which is every day seen in the 
foreign postal service and the continually increasing activity 
of correspondence with the United States especially, owing 
to the facility and frequency of communication with that 
country, has rendered the making of new postal agreements 
absolutely necessary in order to extend the service between 
the two nations, because the agreement entered into in 1861 
and known as " Corwin Lerdo " did not offer to Mexico 
the advantages which were to be desired. With this object, 
on the 4th of April, 1887, a postal agreement was entered 
into with the U nited States through Mr. Romero, Mexican 
Minister at Washington. This arrangement facilitates the 
interchange of correspondence, printed matter, samples 
and packages of certain sizes, total prepayment of all cor- 
respondence being obligatory with the exception of letters. 
The Secretaries of Government of the Exchequer issued 
their respective regulations on the 10th and 11th of August 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 69 

of the same year. The first was amplified in November 
and the second was abolished by the regulations of Sep- 
tember, 1887, and then both came into force on the 1st of 
January, 1888. 

Another agreement was signed at Washington, on the 
28th of April, 1888, the object of which was to render more 
efficient the parcel-post service and ill it the irresponsibility 
of both post-office departments for loss or damage to parcels 
was declared. The agreement came into force from the 
1st of August following. In order that the treaty might 
be carried out the Secretary of the Exchequed issued regu- 
lations of the 30th of December, 1888, and the Secretary 
of Interior a decisive rule on the 29th of the same month 
and year for the carrying out of this and the previous 
agreement of 1887. 

On the 24th of January, 1889, another agreement was 
signed at Washington by which was organized with the 
greatest possible safety a rapid system for the interchange 
of mails, meant exclusively for the direct service of regis- 
tered correspondence between Mexico and New York. The 
1st mail-bags were despatched from both cities on the 15th 
of February, and since then they are being received at 
both ends respectively every fifth day from their despatch. 

French Republic. 

Another agreement was entered into on the 10th of De- 
cember, 1891, regarding the interchange of parcels without 
declared value and on the basis of the Paris Convention of 
the 3d of November, 1880, between the Eepublics of 
Mexico and France. This agreement was made through 
Messieurs Mariscal, Foreign Secretary, and Albert Henri 
Blanchard de Fargas, Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipo- 
tentiary Minister of the French Eepublic in Mexico. 

The agreement will be obligatory till such time as one 



70 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of the two nations shall give a year's notice to the other 
of its intention to allow it to become extinct. The Senate 
approved this Convention on the 12th of December, the 
President signed it on the 14th of the same and it was 
promulgated on the 27th of June, 1892. 

Great Britain and Ireland. 

A treaty of the same kind regarding the carriage of par- 
cels between the Republic and the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland was made in Mexico by Mr. 
Mariscal, foreign minister, and the British minister, Sir 
Spenser St. John, on the 15th of February, 1889. The 
regulations for its being carried out were issued by the 
Secretary of the Interior on the 12th of March, 1890. 

German Empire. 

On the 24th of May, 1892, an agreement was signed by 
Messieurs Mariscal, foreign Secretary, and Von Winckler, 
Envoy, Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary minister of the 
German Empire. By this there was established between 
the two nations a regular postal service for parcels without 
declared value and the value of whose contents cannot be 
claimed on delivery. This agreement after being approved 
of by the Senate on the 30th of the said month was ratified 
on the 27th of the following June. 

MAIL STEAMERS. 

V. The Government, in order to stimulate commerce to 
create regular communications between Mexico and foreign 
countries, as well as to facilitate intercourse between the 
cities and ports on her coast, has favored the establishment 
of mail steamers by granting to the companies concessions 
of subventions more or less large taking into account the 
necessities of the public service. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 71 

The contracts which have lately been made by the Sec- 
retary of the Interior and of Communications as of Public 
Works are the following : 

Imperial German Mail Harrison Line. 

A contract, dated the 12th of February, 1887, with Mr. 
Carlos G. Martens representing Messieurs Guillermo Bus- 
ing & Co., of Veracruz to carry free of charge for the 
government, all the public and official correspondence, 
printed matter and parcels directed to Europe by the 
steamers of the "Imperial German Mail," and the English 
correspondence by those of the " Harrison Line." 

The first line runs every month between Hamburg and 
Havre, Veracruz, Tampico and Progreso, and vice versa ; 
the second runs every month between the ports of Liver- 
pool and Veracruz and is allowed to touch at any of the 
ports of Tampico, Tuxpan, Frontera and Progreso both 
out and home. The steamers of both lines carry under the 
same conditions the correspondence from one to the other 
of the Mexican ports at which they touch and are excepted 
from the payment of lighthouse dues. This contract was 
made for two years and it was prolonged under the same 
conditions on the 12th of February, 1889, for three more 
years to conclude on the 1st of March, 1892. 

New York and Cuba Mail Steam Ship Company. 

A contract dated the 5th of December, 1889, with Mr. 
Eobert W. Parson in his own name and that of the New 
York and Cuba Mail Steam Ship Company, to perform 
between the ports of the line a like service to that expressed 
in the previous contract. The steamers of the company 
sail every week between New York and Veracruz, touching 
at Havana and Progreso and alternately at Tampico by 
Tuxpan or Campeche and Frontera. They are exempted 



72 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

from the payment of lighthouse duties and may engage in 
the coasting trade provided there are no national vessels 
ens-aged in the same. The contract was made for five 
years. 

General French Company of Steam Transports. 

A contract signed on the 10th of January, 1891, with 
Messrs. F. J. Mufios & Co., agents in Veracruz for the 
General French Company of Steam Transports to perform 
a service like to that stipulated for in the previous. The 
steamers of this company make their voyages every month 
from Antwerp to Veracruz touching now and then the ports 
^)f Bordeaux, Havana and Progreso, and from Veracruz 
to Antwerp touching at Tampico, New Orleans and Havre. 
In this contract are also included the irregular steamers of 
the same company as well as those placed at the disposal 
of the service either to increase the number of monthly 
voyages or the number of ports. As compensation for this 
service the steamers are excepted from custom duties. The 
contract will last for three years and may be prolonged at 
the will of the parties. 

General Transatlantic Company. 

A contract made by the same Secretaryship with Mr. 
Eugenio Dutom, general agent of the above company, on 
the 20th of August, 1891, stipulates that it continues to 
perform the service of carrying correspondence between the 
ports at which its steamers touch in accordance with the 
agreement made with the French Government, and more- 
over that it shall perform between the same ports the 
postal service laid down in the previous contract. There 
are included in this contract the steamers which make 
monthly all round voyages, the irregular ones of the same 
company and those placed at its service, all of which are 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 73 

exempted from the payment of lighthouse dues. This 
contract is made for 3 years and may be prolonged at the 
will of the contracting parties. 

West Indian and Pacific Steam Ship Company. 

A contract dated the 25th of November, 1891, and en- 
tered into by the said Secretaryship of Communications 
and the above compauy represented by Mr. Juan Eitter to 
undertake a like service has been already expressed in the 
previous contracts. The steamers run every twenty-eight 
days between the ports of Liverpool and Veracruz, touching 
also at Barbadoes, St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guayra, 
Puerto Cabello, Curazao, Sta. Marta, Savanilla, Cartagena, 
Port-au-Prince, Kingston, Golan, Tampico and New Or- 
leans ; they may also call at the port of Progreso both on 
their out and home voyage. The contract is for three 
years, which may be prolonged. The steamers are free 
from the payment of light-house dues. 

Transatlantic Steam Ship Company of Barcelona. 

A contract made on the 11th of September, 1891, by the 
same Secretaryship with Mr. Carlos Calderon and Vasco, 
representative of the above-mentioned company, for the 
service of the public and official correspondence, placed 
under its charge the ports of the Mexican Gulf at which 
the steamers may touch. The said steamers are exempted 
from paying light-house dues and may engage in the coast- 
ing trade if there be no national boats engaged therein. 

Harrison Steam Ship Line, called " The Charente Steam- 
ship, Limited." 

A contract entered into on the 8th of March, 1892, by 
the Secretaryship of Communications and Mr. Carlos G. 



74 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Marten representative of the said company for the trans- 
port of mails between Mexico and Europe, is on the same 
conditions as the preceding contract. The steamers sail 
every eight days between the ports of Liverpool and Vera- 
cruz, touching both on their outward and return voyages 
at Tampico, Tuxpan, Frontera, Campeche and Progreso as 
well as at Barbadoes, St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guayra, 
Puerto Cabello, Curazao, Santa Marta, Savanilla, Carta- 
gena, Port-au-Prince, Kingston, Colon and New Orleans. 
These steamers must make at least one voyage every 
month. They are freed from the payment of lighthouse 
dues and may engage in the coasting trade. The contract 
lasts for three years. 

New York, Mobile and Mexico Steamship Company. 

A contract made between the Minister of Communications 
and Mr. Emeterio de la Garza representing the said com- 
pany on the 22d of April, 1892, for the carrying of mails 
on the same terms as are stipulated for in previously 
mentioned contracts. These vessels sail every 28 days 
between Mobile and Tampico and are exempted from paying 
lighthouse duties. 

Line of Steamers between Progreso, New Orleans and New 

York. 

A contract dated the 22d of April, 1892, entered into by 
the Secretaryship of Communications and Mr. Manuel 
Peniche, representative of Mr. P. Gonzalez, agent of the 
said line for the transport of mails. The steamers under- 
take the postal service on their voyages from Progreso to 
New York and from Progreso to New Orleans as well as in 
the irregular voyages which they make from Boston to 
Progreso and from Progreso to Veracruz. These steamers 



AND IT.S INSTITUTIONS. 75 

are bound to make at least one voyage every month; they 
do not pay lighthouse dues. The contract is for three 
years. 

Line of Mr. Joaquin Redo. 

A contract entered into on the 1st of August, 1888, with 
Mr. Joaquin Eedo, for running one or two mail steamers 
between San Francisco and Guaymas, touching on their 
outward and return voyages at San Diego, Ensenada de 
Todos Santos, Magdalena Bay, Cape San Lucas (higher), 
Mazatlan and La Paz ; each voyage not to be of more 
than one month's duration. The subventioned line carries 
gratuitously the mails and packets of printing matter sent 
by the post-office to the ports or from the ports at which 
the line touches ; it also carries at reduced rates packages 
containing articles of the Federal Government, troops or 
army men who are traveling on service, citizens or foreign 
subjects who are notoriously poor and wish to come to the 
Republic, and Mexican citizens who wish to return to Mex- 
ico from abroad. In return for these services a subven- 
tion of $2,700 is given for the voyage and return. The 
capital of the line is not subject to the payment of Federal 
taxes; the vessels do not pay any port dues with the excep- 
tion of the pilot's fee and may engage in the coasting trade 
at the various points in their journeys. This contract is 
made for ten years. 

Steam Ship Company of the Pacific Coast. 

On the 12th of August, 1891, the Secretaryship of Com- 
munications and Public Works made another contract with 
this company in which it was stipulated that the company 
should run a mail boat between San Francisco, California, 
and Guaymas, touching in its outward and return voyage 
at the ports of Ensenada de Todos Santos, Magdalena Bay, 
San Jose del Cabo, Mazatlan and La Paz. It perforins a 



76 THE RICHES OF, MEXICO 

like service to that stated in the foregoing contract. The 
mail boat in exchange pays no lighthouse dues and may 
engage in the coasting trade at the different ports of its 
voyage. The company is also empowered to open a regis- 
ter for the vessels one day before that appointed for its 
sailing and its capital is exempted from the payment of Fed- 
eral taxes, with the exception of the stamp duty. The 
length of each voyage and return shall not exceed one 
month. The contract is for five years, which may be pro- 
longed at the desire of the parties to it. 

Line of Steamers of Mr. James W. Porch. 

Similar conditions to those of the preceding contract 
were arranged on the 12th of August, 1891, between the 
Minister of Communications and Mr. James W. Porch, for 
the establishment of a line of steamers to run between the 
ports of Philadelphia to Baltimore and Veracruz touching 
on their outward and home voyage at the ports of Pro- 
greso, Frontera, Campeche, Tuxpan and Tampico, and other 
ports of Mexico or the United States when the traffic so 
require. The company's steamers shall run at least once 
every month between the said ports. The contract will last 
for five years and may then be prolonged for five more. 

Line of Mr. Robert R. Symon. 

Mr. Sebastian Camacho as representative of Mr. Robert 
E. Symon signed, along with the same Secretaryship and 
on the 15th of October, 1891, a contract reforming that of 
the previous 25th of June. By this agreement the steam- 
ships "Mazatlan" and " Altata " are to sail from Man- 
zanillo to Guaymas touching at these ports on each voyage. 
These steamers undertake the carriage of the mails and of 
other things as per previous contract. They engage in the 
seaport and the coasting trade and do not pay light honse 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 77 

dues nor are they subject to the payment of Federal taxes 
except the stamp duty. This contract is for four years. 

Line of Mr. Manuel Romero combined with the Steamers 
of the /Spanish Transatlantic Company. 

A contract of the 21st of August, 1889, entered into with 
Mr. Manuel Romero for the establishment of two steamers 
each running an all round voyage every twenty or twenty- 
five days between the ports of Tuxpan, Veracruz, Coatza- 
coalcos, Minatitlan, and Frontera and being able to arrive 
at San Juan Bautista de Tabasco, Laguna, Campeche, Pro- 
greso and Tampico in time to meet the steamers of the 
Spanish Transatlantic Company which communicate every 
ten days with the pilots of Veracruz and Progreso. 

Under the conditions of the contract just mentioned it 
carried the mails as well as the government servants and 
government articles. The company receives a subvention 
of a thousand dollars after each voyage. The contract is 
for five years which may be prolonged to another five years 
and so on if notice of renunciation be not given before the 
end of the fourth year of each period. 

Pacific Mail Company. 

A contract dated the 11th of December, 1889, with Mr. 
Juan B. Frisbie, representative of the Pacific Mail. This 
contract was a prolongation till the 31st of December, 1891, 
of a previous one drawn up on the 20th of December, 1887. 
The steamers of the company are obliged to continue 
making two voyages every month with the line called 
" Direct between San Francisco and Panama touching on 
their out and home journeys at the ports of Mazatlan and 
Acapulco and at those of Manzanillo and San Bias, once at 
least every month when outward bound and again once 
when homeward bound. The same company shall also 



78 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

make with the line called " Oriental", an all round voyage 
every month calling both when going and coming at the 
ports of Acapulco, Salina Cruz, San Benito, Puerto Angel 
and Tonala. They perform the postal service gratuitously 
and other transports with the same allowance as is stipu- 
lated for in the foregoing contract. The vessels may engage 
in the coasting trade if there are no national boats so 
doing. The company used to receive a subvention of 2,500 
dollars monthly ; but when the contract was provisionally 
prolonged and for an indefinite time from the 1st of Jan- 
uary, 1892, the subvention was withdrawn. 

Mexican Company of Navigation on the River Grijalva. 

The Secretaryship of Communications and Public Works 
made a contract on the 11th of August, 1891, with Mr. 
Charles Wehener for the establishment of lines of navi- 
gation on the river Grijalva between " Atasta " and 
"Palmas " by a company to be called the " Mexican Com- 
pany of Navigation on the river Grijalva." They can 
make the journey from Atasta to Barra de Chiltepec by the 
river Gonzalez. Between the two first mentioned points 
they must run at least six voyages per month and between 
the first and last the number of runs shall be determined by 
the company with the approbation of the government. 

The company undertakes to carry gratuitously the mails 
and postal parcels which are delivered to them by the post 
offices and also to perform the postal service between 
"Atasta" and "Las Palmas " either by means of a 
special mail boat when the ordinary boat is unavailable or 
by means of a post horse. It will also carry with a 
reduction of a third part of the fare laid down in its list, civil 
and military employes in the service of the government, 
armed forces, war material, colonists who are passing from 
one point on the line to another along with their luggage. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 79 

The company enjoys a subvention of $5,400, equal to $75 
per all, round voyage. The term of the contract is five 
years. 

Company of Navigation on the Rivers of /Sotavento of 

Veracruz. 

By virtue, of another contract made on the 3d of December, 
1891, with the Secretaryship of Communications, Messrs. 
Juan A. Chazaro, Sucesores, engage to establish lines of 
navigation on the rivers Papaloapan, San Juan Michapan 
and Alonso Lazaro between Tlacotalpan and Tuxtepec, and 
between Tlacotalpan and Alonzo Lazaro, and to organize a 
company called the "Company of Navigation on the Rivers 
of Sotavento of Veracruz." A steamboat must perform 
the special service for passengers and mails carrying them 
from Alvarado to the farthest point navigable on the 
Papaloapan. Each of the company's vessels must make 
at least four voyages per month and the mail boat three 
voyages a week. 

The company carries the letters, printed matter and 
parcels delivered to it by the post-offices and undertakes 
the postal service between Tlacotalpan and Tuxtepec. It 
allows a reduction in the fare to civil and military em- 
ployes, armed forces in the freight of war material and 
other things pertaining to the government. In exchange 
it receives from the government a subvention of $5,100 
yearly. The contract is for five years which may be pro- 
longed for a like term at the will of the parties to it. 

POSTAL STATISTICS. 

VI. To obtain an exact idea of the progress in Mexico 
of the Postal Authorities the following statistics are 
quoted. 

The post-offices existing in the Federal District, States 



80 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

and Territories of the Republic during the fiscal year 1889- 
90 in accordance with Budget of Expediture for the said 
period were as follows : — 

States and Territories. Post Offices. 

Aguascalientes 4 

Baja California S 

Campeche 6 

Coahuila 22 

Colima 2 

Chiapas 7 

Chihuahua 20 

Distrito Federal 1 

DuraDgo 15 

Guanajuato 21 

Guerrero 11 

Hidalgo 19 

Jalisco 2G 

Mexico 24 

Michoacan 21 

Morelos 7 

Nuevo Leon 13 

Oaxaca.... 14 

Puebla 24 

Quere"taro 7 

San Luis Potosi 20 

Sinaloa 13 

Sonora 14 

Tabasco 4 

Tamaulipas 14 

Tepic 7 

Tlaxcala 6 

Veracruz 30 

Yucatan 13 

Zacatecas 1G 

Grand total 409 790 13 I'M 





Stations. 




Sub-Offices. 


Federal District. 


Totals. 


2 




6 


12 




20 


3 


... 


9 


27 


... 


49 


3 




5 


17 


... 


24 


34 




54 


4 


13 


18 


32 




47 


33 


... 


54 


21 


... 


32 


36 




55 


71 


... 


97 


41 


... 


G5 


12 


... 


63 


7 


... 


14 


26 




39 


34 


... 


4S 


47 


... 


71 


7 


... 


14 


27 




47 


22 




35 


59 




73 


17 




21 


27 




41 


7 


... 


14 


9 




15 


03 


... 


93 


39 




52 


21 




37 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 81 

The following figures give us the amount of the internal 
correspondence between the fiscal years 1878-79 — 1889-90. 

Fiscal Years. No. of Pieces. 

1878 to 1879 5,992,611 

1889" 1880 5,786,790 

1880 "1881 6,141,790 

1881 "1882 6,732,504 

1882 "1883 10,640,516 

1883 "1884..... 10,488,518 

1884 "1885 11,905,209 

1885 " 1886 13,289,591 

1886 "1887 16,504,034 

1887 "1888 27,439,018 

1888 "1889 43,052,800 

1889 "1890 95,852,939 



Total 253,826,320 

COMPARISON. 

Fiscal Year. No. of Pieces. Increase. Decrease. 

1878tol879 5,002,611 

1879 " 1880 5,786,790 205,821 

1880 "1881 6,141,790 355,000 

1881 " 1882 6,732,504 590,714 

1882 " 1883 10,640,516 3,908,012 

1883 " 1884 10,488,519 151,998 

1884 " 1885 11,905,209 416,691 

1885 " 1886 13,289,591 1,384,382 

1886 " 1887 16,504,034 3,214,443 

1887" 1888 27,439,018 10,934,984 

1888"1889 43,052,800 15,613,782 

1889 " 1890 95,852,939 52,800,139 

By reason of commercial developments, the opening of 
new routes of communication and careful conduct of the 
Postal Authorities, the volume of correspondence has 
notably increased and at the end of the fiscal year 1890- 



82 THE RICHES OF MEXTCO 

91, 165 new offices have been established; since then there, 
has been 53 additional offices added, making a grand total of 
1,430 post-office, extensions, throughout the Republic of 
Mexico, the greater part of which have daily communication. 

During the first six months of the fiscal year 1890-91, 
the mail matter handled by the Mexican post-office num- 
bered 63,062,468 pieces, in the second half of the same 
year, 65,577,650; during the first half of the fiscal year 
1891-92, 67,780,647, showing a decided gain over the 
preceding half year by 1,609,182 pieces and 4,718,179 
pieces over the first six months of the fiscal year 1890-91. 

The postal movement for the six months comprehended 
between July and December, 1891, can be divided as 
follows : 

Received. Delivered. Totaled. 

Letters and written communications : 

Interior service 9,799,724 12,924,458 22,724,182 

Foreign service 2,397,298 1,612,223 4,009,521 

Printed matter and samples : 

Interior service 17,605,122 16,752,154 34,357,276 

Foreign service , 3,850,459 1,611,725 5,462,184 

Kegistered matter : 

Interior service 227,893 270,063 497,956 

Foreign service 80,300 49,228 129,528 

Official correspondence : 

Interior service 10,027,617 13,194,521 23,222,138 

Foreign service 2,477,598 1,661,451 4,139,049 

Total 46,466,011 48,075,823 94,541,834 

The postal card movement for the same period is this: 

Received 16,600 

Delivered 12,500 

Total '. 29,100 

The Custom House of the city of Mexico handled 5,666 
packets coming from England and United States, during 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 83 

the period that we are considering. The average of the 
daily circulation of the postal matter in the offices of all 
the Kepublic, is to the amount of 365,112 pieces. 

Referring to the income of post-offices in some of the 
principal cities of the Republic, the following data has just 
been published: 

FISCAL YEAR, 1890-91. 

Acapulco $ 4,154 13 

Celaya 9,145 15 

Chihuahua 15,463 20 

Durango 8,794 90 

Guadalajara i 22,836 24 

Guanajuato ... 13,121 87 

Guaymas G,116 88 

Hermosillo 8,115 40 

Leon 8,338 07 

Mazatlan 16,962 05 

Monterey 22,599 79 

Morelia 8,508 65 

Pachuca 9>513 3i 

Puebla 36j 288 45 

Queretaro 8)616 8 9 

Salttillo 10,962 84 

San Luis Potosi 24 543 32 

Tehuacan 6j500 73 

Te P ic 5,013 32 

Toluca , 6j391 69 

VII. As has been seen by the last preceding contracts 
(Till.), credit has been given to the Interior Department 
for certain works which have been carried to completion 
by the Department of Communications and Public Works. 
It could not possibly be otherwise, without falling into a 
labyrinth of confusions, more especially to those but little 
versed in the economic problems of Mexico ; as by virtue 



84 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of the law promulgated May 8th, 1891, which created the 
Department of Communications and Public Works, marked 
separations had been made in the others, principally in 
those of Colonization, Industry and Commerce and of the 
Interior, as a result of which the continuity of the works 
would be interrupted, and that which might have been 
commenced by one would be carried forward or completed 
by other. For the purpose of clearness, it has been con- 
sidered preferable in this book not to divide the series of 
the works, but to credit each one to its original department, 
making mention, however, of the new Department, at the 
stage where said series were continued by the latter. 

It will also be noted that various branches of the Interior 
Department have been omitted in this chapter and in the 
same manner we have treated the others ; this was required 
by the plan of the work, as from the different departments 
we have separated those subjects, which, by virtue of their 
importance, required to be treated separately. 




MEXICAN RAILROAD FROM VERACRUZ TO CITY OF MEXICO. 

Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 85 



CHAPTER III. 

DEPARTMENT OE JUSTICE AND PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

I. Of late years the department of State has directed 
special attention towards two of the important branches 
subordinate to that office. 

Its most important dispositions have tended, first, to 
make uniform the legislation, in which task it has met with 
frequent and serious difficulties on being applied to the 
courts, and, secondly, to procure an increase of institutions 
for public instruction, choosing sucb methods of teaching 
as are best adapted to meet the wants of the people. 

The progress made in this second order of labors is 
detailed in the chapter of this work bearing upon public 
instruction, and in the present one are set forth the condi- 
tions of the Federal juridical power, the functions of which 
are exercised by the courts established by the law of the 
country. These courts are : the Supreme Court of Justice, 
first in the ascending scale of Federal jurisdiction, — and the 
circuit courts and judicatures of district, which form the 
starting point of said jurisprudence. 

In this chapter are likewise pointed out the principal 
works begun with the object of uniforming the civil legisla- 
tion of the Federal District and Territories. 

SUPREME COURT. 

This institution was created by the Congress of Consti- 
tuents in virtue of the resolution of August 27th, 1824. 
On the 4th of October of that same year the Federal Con- 
stitution marked out its contributions, and, by decree of 
February 14th, 1826, its organization was finally completed. 



86 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

By the law of May 23, 1837, it underwent a new organi- 
zation, which it retained until the 2d of September, 1846, 
when it was re-organized under the former law of 1837. 

By the decree of December 16th, 1853, the Supreme 
Court was denominated " Tribunal Supremo," a title which 
it kept until November, 1855, when it re-assumed its origi- 
nal name. 

The Supreme Court of Justice is organized in conformity 
with the Constitution of February 5th, 1857, and is com- 
posed of eleven Magistrates, four Supernumeraries, an 
Attorney-General, and a Solicitor. It is divided into three 
Boards of Commissioners. Affairs of its cognizance are 
dispatched with subjection to the by-laws of July 29th, 
1859. 

This tribunal has twice been interrupted in the course of 
its functions, first, by decree of November 22d, 1859, 
when due to the strife with the conservative party, the ex- 
ercise of its attributions was commuted to the courts of 
the States, until constitutional order was re-established 
throughout the country at the end of June, 1861. The 
second interruption occurred during the War of Intervention 
by the French Empire. At that period the court, upon 
being reorganized by decree of August, 1867, became in 
vested with the attributions corresponding to the Superior 
Court of Federal District, but it relinquished the exercise of 
these attributions upon its re-establishment on the 3d of 
May, 1868. 

CIRCUIT COURTS AND DISTRICT JUDICATURES. 

These courts were created by the law of May 20th, 1826, 
and their organization has been subject to the decree pro- 
mulgated on the 22d of May, 1834, as well as those of 
October 2d, 1846, and November 23d, 1855. 

Twice have the circuit courts been suppressed, first, by the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 87 

decree of October 18, 1841, until their re-establishment 
took place in September, 1846, and their second suppres- 
sion took place by the decree of September 20, 1853, until 
the 23d of November, 1855, when their second re-establish- 
ment was brought about by virtue of the decree issued on 
that date. 

During their suppression these courts were substituted 
by the Supreme Court of the States. 

Since the creation, on the 23d of November, 1855, of 
the Supreme Court of the Federal District, its first Board 
of Commissioners was vested with the attributions of cir- 
cuit court, until the creation of the court of that name, on 
the 1st of June, 1878. 

As the system of government in Mexico is based on the 
absolute independence of the powers, the Department of 
Justice has no privileges whatever in these courts other 
than those of appointing their employes and granting 
licenses to these upon application. 

The aforesaid law of June 1st, 1878, makes provision to 
the effect that the Magistrates of the Circuit Court, Judges 
of District, and their respective secretaries, are appointed 
by the President of the Republic, — a list of the applicants 
to the office having been presented previously by the 
Supreme Court, within a fortnight of the date upon which 
it has been demanded. After the lapse of this term the 
appointment is made by the Executive, the Courts, in that 
case, having forfeited their right to interfere in the matter. 

The attorneys-general are appointed and removed at will 
by the Executive, the same as the other employes of minor 
importance. Both those of the Circuit Courts and those of 
the District Judicatures, are appointed by the Supreme 
Court, in conformity with a list of three applicants presented 
by the corresponding courts and judges. 

The circuit magistrates and the district judges continue 
four years in office. They consider the case before them, 



88 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

whether with the assistance of secretaries or with wit- 
nesses, beiug aided in the exercise of their office by a sec- 
ular attorney-general. 

There are actually eight circuit courts, distributed 
around in the States, being located at the following points: 
Culiacan, Chihuahua, Guadalajara, Merida, Mexico, Mon- 
terey, Orizaba and Queretaro. 

The Court of Culiacan comprises the district judicatures 
of Lower California, Sinaloa and Sonora, — the Court of 
Chihuahua, the judicatures of Chihuahua, Durango and 
Paso del Norte, — the Court of Guadalajara, the judicatures 
of Aguascalientes, Colima, Jalisco, Tepic Territory and 
Zacatecas, — the Court of Merida, the judicatures of Cam- 
peche, Chiapas (San Cristobal Las Casas), Tabasco and 
Yucatan, — the Court of the City of Mexico, the first and 
second judicatures of the Federal District, and those of 
Guerrero, Hidalgo, State of Mexico, Morelos and Tlax- 
cala, — - the Court of Monterrey the judicatures of Coa- 
huila (Saltillo), Nuevo Leon, Nuevo Laredo, Matamoros, 
(Tamaulipas), and Piedras Negras (Porfirio Diaz City, 
Coahuila) — and to the Court of Orizaba belong the judi- 
catures of Oaxaca, Puebla, Tampico (Tamaulipas), Tapa- 
chula (Chiapas), first of Veracruz (Jalapa), and second 
of Veracruz, established in the port of that name, — and, 
finally, to the Court of Queretaro correspond the judica- 
tures of Guanajuato, Michoacan, Queretaro and San Luis 
Potosi. 

The district judicatures number thirty-eight and are 
distributed one in each State of the Eepublic, with excep- 
tion of Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Veracruz, where 
two exist, as also in Lower California and the Federal Dis- 
trict. There are three in Tamaulipas, and one in the 
Tepic Territory. 




JOAQUIN BARANDA. 

Secretary of Justice. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 89 

RIGHT OF HABEAS CORPUS. 

("Ley de Amparo.") 

II. The recourse of habeas corpus, which has for object 
to make effective in a country the guarantee offered by its 
constitution, was in Mexico first regulated by the law of 
February 28th, 1861. The deficiency of this law origi- 
nated the initiative presented in the Congress of the Union 
on the 30th of October, 1868, which, being approved with 
modifications, became a law on the 20th of January, 1869. 
This law prohibited the action of habeas corpus in mat- 
ters of juridical character, but the Supreme Court, moved 
by the fundamental idea of the Constitution, found it nec- 
essary to grant a counter sentence in the courts in cases 
that constituted a violation of guarantee, thus establishing 
a practice which, although in conformity with the injunc- 
tions of the Constitution, nevertheless gave the Court, in the 
opinion of some litigants, the character of revisor of ail 
kinds of sentences. 

On the other hand, in cases where the reclaimer act was 
suspended, the Federal authorities had no other rule to go 
by but its own criterion, whereby the right of habeas 
corpus became illusory in many cases. 

These difficulties became more visible when a grant of 
habeas corpus was given in cases of recruiting for the 
army, as it then became necessary, in order to make effect- 
ive the writ of execution issued by the courts, to conciliate 
the discipline and privileges of the militia, with the respect 
due to sentences of the Federal justice. 

These and other difficulties of the second law of ordin- 
ance, bearing upon the recourse of the right of habeas 
corpus, which presented themselves in practice, induced 
the Department of Justice to submit, on the 2nd of 
October, 1877, another project of reform to the Congress, 



90 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

which, being discussed together with one presented by the 
Supreme Court of Justice in 1878, gave origin to the third 
law on the subject now in force, and which was promul- 
gated on the 14th of December, 1882. 

This new law details minutely the cases in which the Fed- 
eral authority can decree t*he suppression of the reclaimed 
act, and makes the right of habeas corpus in matters 
of juridical character against sentences pronounced by the 
courts, when these sentences signify a violation of individual 
guarantees, or an attack upon the sovereignty of the States. 

It extended sufficient jurisdictional power to the local 
judges and to the mayors that they, as auxiliaries to the 
district judge in the localities where there were none of 
these, might, in the terms of the law, recognize in the 
requests for right of habeas corpus and suspend the 
reclaimed act. 

Thus vanished the difficulties upon which the right of 
habeas corpus stumbled in the recruiting cases. In these 
cases the law provides that the writ of suspension shall be 
notified to the field or subaltern officer commissioned to 
execute the act, and that without delay, through the Sec- 
retary of Justice, the Secretary of War is also imparted 
with the fact, that he may order the non-removal of the 
promovent from the place from which he solicited the right 
of habeas corpus, until the sentence is fully pronounced. 
In that case the Supreme Court of Justice, upon returning 
the writs to the judge, shall forward, through the Secretary 
of the Branch, copy of the sentence to the Secretary of 
War, that this functionary, in his turn, may order without 
delay the execution of the sentence. 

This same law establishes the responsibility of the author- 
ities resisting the determinations of justice, detailing also 
the cases in which the judges, by thus violating the law, 
must present themselves before their superiors to respond 
for their conduct. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 91 

Code of Proceedings in the Federal Jurisdiction. 

III. The inefficiency, under the political system prevalent 
in the country, of some legal dispositions inherited from the 
Spanish legislation and still in force in the Federal juris- 
diction, — the deficiency of those dictated at later periods, — 
and, finally, the notorious legal influence exercised by the 
Federal courts in matters differing so much in tendencies 
as do those appertaining to the Department of Dispatch, — 
have, since the year 1872, brought the Executive on the 
idea of forming a Code of Proceedings in matters of 
Federal interest. 

In 1877, finding it necessary to dispatch at least the 
organic law of Article 96 of the Constitution, — which 
article orders the establishment and organization of circuit 
courts and district judicatures — a project to that effect 
was presented to Congress for its approval. This project, 
though examined and approved by the House of Deputies, 
is still pending in the House of Senators. Neither was any 
practical result obtained to this end, when, in 1881, the 
same project was submitted to the examination of another 
commission. Finally, in 1885, a new commission was 
appointed to study the question of the required code, the 
results of its labors having been presented to the Govern- 
ment for revision. 

CODE OF COMMERCE. 

IV. The ordinance of Bilbao, the observance of which 
was prescribed by decrees issued on the 22d of February, 
1792, and April 27th, 1801, being adopted in the country 
as a standard in the field of commercial intercourse, consti- 
tuted in Mexico the legislation of commerce. 

After the Independence this legislation underwent inno- 
vations and reforms, until the promulgation, on the 16th of 
May, 1854, of the first Mexican Code of Commerce, 



92 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

despoiling the central Government of its authority in that 
direction. 

This code did not suit the country because of the form 
of government under which if had been constituted and its 
democratic principles, sanctioned by the constitution of 
1857, and, hence, its reform became necessary. The labors 
bearing on this reform were inaugurated in 1867, but not 
before 1880, owing to the interruption of wars, was the 
project completed by the commission appointed for that 
purpose, and in September of the following year the said 
project was forwarded to Congress for approval. 

On the suggestion of the respective commission of Con- 
gress, the President was authorized, by decree of June, 
1883, to effect a new revision of the project and to pro- 
mulgate the corresponding law. On the strength of this 
decree, the President, on the 15th of April, 1884, issued a 
new code, which was approved by the National Congress 
on the 31st of May of the same year. Two months later, 
on the 20th of June, the Commercial Register became its 
by-laws, constructed by the secretaries of the civil branch 
of the judicature. 

When, by decree of December, 1885, the functions of 
the Commercial Register passed over to the offices of the 
Public Register, this by-law had to be reformed, an opera- 
tion that was effected on the 20th of December of the 
same year. 

Nevertheless, in practice it became evident that this Code 
labored under the disadvantage of several defects, due to 
the modification it had undergone by the former decree 
issued by Congress, as well as to certain disposition it con- 
tained relative especially to the Banks of Issue and Circu- 
lation. Hence, with a view to removing these defects, the 
president was authorized, by decree of June 4, 1887, to 
reform totally or partially this Code. To this end a special 
commission was appointed on the 21st of that month, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 93 

which in the following year presented a project of partial 
reform bearing upon limited companies. This project was 
raised to the rank of a law on the 10th of April, 1888. 

The labors of the commission next directed themselves 
to making other modifications of importance, which gave 
origin to the new Code now in force, which was published 
on the 15th of September, 1889, and commenced to take 
effect after the 1st of September, 1890. 

CIVIL CODE AND ITS CODE OF PROCEEDINGS. 

V. As the legislation of Spain became inefficacious to 
Mexico independent, it became necessary to adopt it in its 
new political existence. With this end in view, on the 22d 
of January, 1822, commissions were appointed for the first 
time to form their projects of civil and penal legislation. 
The results obtained in that direction are not known. 

During the war called " The War of Three Years," 
President Juarez, then residing with the Government inVera- 
cruz, recommended in 1858 the formation of a Civil Code 
to the jurist Justo Sierra who, in less than one year, pre- 
sented a project on the subject, which circulated in print in 
1861. Some time afterwards a commission was appointed 
to revise and modify the project, but when on the point of 
finishing its work, it was obliged to suspend proceedings 
owing to the French Intervention. Upon the return of the 
Government to the Capital another commission was appointed 
to finish this incompleted work, which was done in 1870. 

The project was approved by Congress by decree of 
December 8th, of the said year, and commenced to rule in 
the Federal District and Territories of Lower California 
from the 1st of March, 1871. 

After this several States adopted the code, some without 
any modification, and others with those necessary to meet 
their local requirements. 

In June, 1882, a commission was appointed to study the 



94 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

modifications that should be made in the aforesaid code, as 
some defects in its application had been pointed out. The 
new project, embracing important reforms, was presented in 
March, 1883. 

On the 14th of December of the same year, Congress 
authorized the President to promulgate the accorded modi- 
fications, and to that purpose was adopted the new code on 
the 31st of March, 1884, which is now in force. 

The promulgation of the Civil Code carried with it the 
necessity of the formation of proceedings in this matter. 
The commission to which the formation of this code was 
commended presented its project in 1872, and after being 
revised it was issued as a law and commenced to go into 
effect on the 15th of September of the same year. 

In April, 1875, the Legislative Power authorized the 
Government to appoint a commission to propose the neces- 
sary additions and'exphinations to this code, inasmuch as in 
practice it had been found to contain very prominent defects. 

The project of reforms was presented in November of 
the same year and forwarded to Congress for approbation. 
The house not being able to proceed with the required 
promptness in the discussion of the project, it authorized 
the Government, by decree of June 1st, 1880, to realize the 
reforms. In consequence, the code was promulgated, go- 
ing into effect on the 1st of November of that year. 

The last reform to which the Code of Proceedings was 
subject was made by the same commission that performed 
the same duties respecting the Civil Code. The project in 
question was presented to Congress on the 7th of June, 
1883, but the house authorized the Government on the 
14th of December of that year to publish both codes. In 
virtue of this authorization, the Civil Proceedings were 
promulgated on the 15th of May, 1884, and were approved 
by the Legislative power on the 31st of the same month. 
This code is still in force. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 95 



PENAL CODE AND ITS CODE OF PROCEEDINGS. 

VI. The formation of a Mexican Penal Code was initi- 
ated, as has been stated, since 1822. Later, in 1852, Juarez 
recommended the study of a project for Penal Code and 
Proceedings to the lawyer Juan A. de la Fuente, but the 
result of this work is unknown. 

In 1862 a commission was appointed to form a Penal 
Code, but this commission did not conclude its work on ac- 
count of the War of Intervention. In September, 1868, 
the works were taken up again, and the project was finally 
finished by the commission in May, 1871. At the end of 
that year, on the 7th of December, it came into force by 
the law of that date, beginning to rule on the 1st of April, 
1872. Later the code has undergone the reforms pro- 
mulgated by decree of May 26th, 1884. 

In order to form the Code of Proceedings in the penal 
branch, a commission was appointed on the 4th of Septem- 
ber, 1871. This commission presented to the Department 
of Justice, in 1872, the respective project, which, after a 
close revision, was ordered in print to further its greater 
circulation. 

In 1880 the works of the code were taken up again with 
earnest desire, and the members of the commission did not 
cease to hold frequent conferences until they definitely 
ended this labor. 

The decree of June 1st, 1880, authorized the Executive 
to put in force the new law, and, thus, on the 15th of 
September of that year the law was promulgated, begin- 
ning to rule on the 1st of November. 

Lastly, a new commission has been recommended to form 
some modifications which this code needs, in view of the 
difficulties encountered in practice. This commission has 
not, as yet, presented the result of its works. 



96 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER IT. 

DEPAETMENT OF COLONIZATION — INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 

I. The amount of work executed by this Department 
lias been of such a varied nature as to render it impossible 
to treat it under this heading. We shall, therefore, simply 
refer at present to the most important among these which 
have seen the light since the restoration of peace, in 1876, 
and such as have been completed during the same period, 
although initiated by a previous administration. 

Great portion of the affairs of this Department will be 
dealt with under separate chapters, agreeably with the 
general plan of this work. 

General Vicente Riva Palacio was the first to give an 
impulse to the affairs of the Department of Fomentation. 
Since, these have been improved upon by his successors, 
General Carlos Pacheco, and the intelligent and distin- 
guished engineer, Mr. Manuel Fernandez Leal, the present 
incumbent. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Notwithstanding the earnest endeavors on the part of the 
Government to issue a general chart of the Republic that 
should advantageously replace the first atlas and official 
chart published in 1850, the impecunious condition of the 
General Exchequer placed a bar in the way of proper public 
development and individual enterprise. 

From the time that the Department of Fomentation 
undertook to push these works especial attention has been 
devoted to them without interruption of any kind. The 




MANUEL FERNANDEZ LEAL. 

Secretary of Colonization, Industry and Commerce. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 97 

Geographical Exploring Committee of the national terri- 
tory, comprised of civil engineers, aided by a military 
staff, has been organized and extended their field of opera- 
tion to a great portion of the States of the Republic, gath- 
ering large amount of useful information to determine the 
geographical co-ordinates of the most important localities. 
Those of less importance being determined by topographi- 
cal observations derived from the former. They have like- 
wise been fixing the route of the different roads through the 
States where the survey has been conducted and made 
detailed maps of the same. The War Department has 
made a careful examination of the roads, renderino; a 
minute report which illustrates the difficulties to be en- 
countered during a march as well as the most advantageous 
posts for battle along the roads traveled over. 

The department of Natural History, which has been 
attached to the Geographical Committee, has acquired the 
most accurate data concerning the special conditions that 
characterize the Mexican territory, and the development 
and improvement of its natural resources. 

The Mexican committee appointed to determine the 
national boundary lines with regard to the United States 
■and Guatemala, besides fixing with due precision the bound- 
aries between Mexico and said countries have also made 
important local studies on different sections of the Republic. 
To the preceding stock of information must be added the 
data acquired by the special committee appointed by the 
Department of Fomentation in 1881, to carry on the coast 
survey along the Pacific coast and. adjacent islands. Owino- 
to these studies a more thorough knowledge has been 
attained with regard to the geographical position, topo- 
graphical formation and geological constitution of the coast 
and neighboring islands, as well as of the natural products 
to be found thereon, while the production and development 
of the pearl shell, the mother-of-pearl, the tortoise shell, 

7 



98 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

guano, hemp and precious woods has received considerable 
attention. 

All this scientific work, together with that contributed by 
different States and diverse colonization companies comprise 
a large stock of valuable information which has been utilized 
in making up the map of Mexico. 

GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORING COMMITTEE. 

With the view of acquiring an exact knowledge of the 
natural resources of the country and forming an accurate 
estimate of the requirements of the different localities the 
Government, in 1877, issued orders for the drawing up of 
official geographical charts. The government printing 
department being already in possession of all the existing 
data on the subject, the Secretary of Fomentation in 
order to inaugurate the operations on the field, presented 
during the same year, a bill before Congress for the pur- 
pose of appointing the committee intrusted with the 
collection of the necessary geographical and statistical 
information. The aforesaid bill was passed under decree 
of Congress in December of the same year, the resolution 
being immediately followed by the appointment of the 
official staff composed of a director, a chief engineer, and 
six assistant engineers. The appointment of a director 
fell upon Mr. Agustin Diaz, civil engineer, who was nomi- 
nated January 1st, 1878, the rest of the committee receiving 
their appointment on the 15th of the same month. 

On the 30th day of April the staff was reduced to a 
director, a chief engineer and one assistant engineer, thus 
upsetting the original plans of the committee who there- 
upon decided to proceed in their work zone by zone, 
shaping their future course in conformity with the cir- 
cumstances. 

On the 10th of May the committee proceeded to the city 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 99 

of Puebla, the eastern region having been selected for the 
inauguration of operations. 

The results obtained from the very start proved of such 
importance that the War Department concluded to increase 
the staff of the committee and, in September, 1879, ap- 
pointed ten engineers selected from among staff officers 
and one naturalist engineer to wait upon the committee. 
Later on a still greater addition was made to the committee 
by the appointment, on July 1st, 1882, of a group of 
accountants and draftsmen and a section of Natural History. 
The Geographical Exploring Committee is at present com- 
posed of a chief managing engineer, one second managing 
engineer, one second engineer, two third ditto, two assistant 
engineers, one engineer, secretary and one clerk, not to 
mention nineteen men belonging to the outfit of accountants, 
draftsmen and the department of Natural History, nor the 
military corps attached to same, which deserve especial 
mention hereafter. 

On completion of the work in the State of Puebla the 
committeetransferred their field of operations to Jalapa in the 
early part of October, 1880, in order to commence work in 
the State of Veracruz. Shortly after, on May 12th, 1881, 
it was decided to send the second engineer to Nuevo Leon, 
and Tamaulipas, in charge of a section, to proceed with 
the drawing up of the geographical charts of those States. 
This section took up its headquarters at Matamoros and 
after fulfilling its mission was recalled and proceeded to join 
the committe in Jalapa, each member falling back upon his 
respective section. 

At the beginning the work was confined to the prepara- 
tion of the charts, the astronomical position of the city of 
Puebla and other heads of departments; the location of 
the roads by means of the troqueameter and hand com- 
pass. The latitude was ascertained by the most approved 
methods, and the longitude was taken by the absolute 

LofC 



100 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

longitude of Puebla. The work was executed with such 
expedition that within one year the necessary information 
had been collected to report upon the sections that had 
been surveyed. In the execution of the General Chart 
care was taken to accurately mark on the zones gone 
over certain points conveniently distributed on the map 
showing the geographical route, and over this the work 
in detail, therefore in the development of the plan are com- 
prised the following : the direct astronomical positions and 
the geodetical and topographical situations. The geograph- 
ical position has been ascertained by longitude through 
telegraphic signals exchanged between the observatory in 
the capital of the Republic and the field of operations, 
and in very few instances, by observation and com- 
parison of our chronometers; the latitude by means of 
diverse astronomical observations, especially those of cir- 
cummeridian stars, selected by pairs at the time of culmi- 
nation, when nearly equizenitical. The altitude has been 
obtained by means of a sufficient number of hipsometrical 
observations taken simultaneously with the barometrical 
observations of Meteorological National Observatory of 
Mexico, or at the headquarters of the committee. 

With regard to the geodetical position this has been as- 
certained by means of topographical lines forming great 
polygons based on astronomical points clearly defined, so 
that the operation may easily be verified by either system. 

The topographical part of the work has been subdivided 
into the following classes, viz. : the preparation of 
especial maps, in order to familiarize the officers of the 
committee with the different processes that might be em- 
ployed; in drafting out and preparing the General Map; in 
the formation of topographical maps of diverse towns and 
finally in reconnoitering military positions for the use of 
the War Department. 

At headquarters, the residence of the Managing Director, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 101 

are to be found the different offices of Military Adminis- 
tration in charge of the service and the national guard and 
the departments of Accountants, Draftsmen, Observations, 
Lithography and Photography, under their respective 
managers. 

The Department of the Secretary is in charge of the cor- 
respondence and keeps the records of the committee as 
well as all printed matter addressed to same. 

The Department of Accountants looks after the numer- 
ical results obtained by the outfits appointed by the com- 
mittee, and the reporters on the field ; prepare the schedules 
and forms to be used by the committee and preserve on 
record all the figures made by the members of the different 
outfits. 

The Department of Draftsmen manage the collection of 
field notes and all further information for the preparation 
of the geographical map. 

The Meteorological and Astronomical Observatories 
erected on the field of operations have a twofold object, 
viz. : it tends to keep the officers in practice as regards the 
use of the instruments after marking the geographical 
position of the locality in each group and at the same 
time, to obtain, within a given period, most valuable infor- 
mation on the climatological conditions of said localities 
which shall correspond with the simultaneous observations 
of temperature and atmospheric pressure taken by the 
different groups during their excursions in order to obtain 
the exact altitude of their respective localities. 

The lithographic and engraving plants were definitely 
erected with the machinery received from' Paris for the 
purpose in June, 1889. 

These departments undertake the issue of printed forms 
adapted to all the purposes of the committee, thus facilitat- 
ing the execution of estimates of other operations ; the 
diagrams of route marked on sections of the chart devoted 



102 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

to the benefit of the War Department ; the tabulated 
schedule of signals to be employed in the engraving of the 
maps ; the printing of circulars on the regulations of the 
Scientific Committee; the proper labels for the adequate 
denomination of exhibits at the Museum, etc., etc. 

The department of photography, photo-engraving, and 
photo-zincography at the staff officers' quarters, in the War 
Department, lie under the management of the Director, 
Mr. Fernando Ferrari Perez, at the head of the section on 
Natural History, per especial grant issued April, 1891. 

The Geographical Exploring Committee commands 
the services of a military guard composed of laborers and 
working men who furnish their help on the field and in the 
shops established by the committee. They also mount 
guard on the field, under command of their superior offi- 
cers, and in the shops serve at the orders of a superintend- 
ent and an overseer. 

The different sections, in pursuance of a well regulated 
plan, survey and map out every inch of the ground run 
over, while the field notes and data acquired on the ground 
is simultaneously arranged in all the sections. 

The preliminary work for the preparation of the General 
Chart already covers over eighty sheets comprising the 
States of Puebla, Tlaxcala, nearly the whole State of 
Veracruz, Hidalgo, Mexico, the Federal District, Morelos, 
Sonora and Tamaulipas, besides over thirty maps of 
different townships. 

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

II. This department commenced its labor at the close of 
the year 1879, with one solitary engineer. In 1882, its 
personnel was increased, being composed of three naturalist- 
engineers and three assistant collectors and preparers. Of 
these six members, three belonged to the Department of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 103 

Colonization, Industry and Commerce, and two to the 
chief special staff of the Minister of War. In 1884, the 
department under consideration, was composed of only one 
naturalist-engineer and two assistants; the secretary was 
therefore obliged to furnish an engineer, and there other 
individuals, in addition to the Exploring Commission, until 
1887, in which year the law governing the Estimates of 
Expenditures of the Federation, assigned to the Depart- 
ment of Natural History one chief naturalist, two secondary 
naturalists, an astronomer, a preserver, three assistant col- 
lectors and preparers, a designer, an inspecting and 
preserving civil engineer of archaeological monuments, and 
a war staff composed of eight persons. In 1888, the 
inspecting engineer was discontinued. 

The department was removed to Puebla, at which point 
the center of operations of the Geographical-Exploring 
Commission had been established, and its labors were 
extended to the same zones in which the preliminary 
sketches were being made, taking advantage of each one of 
the seasons of the year, as might be required by the char- 
acter and diversity of their studies. 

The department of Natural History, within a short space 
of time, succeeded in collecting and classifying an infinite 
variety of rocks and minerals, many species of vegetables 
and classes of woods, a large number of insects of various 
kinds, reptiles, a rich assortment of birds, mammals, fossils, 
a quantity of antiquities pertaining to aboriginal races and 
lastly drew up geographical charts of the places explored. 

The geographical commission having been invited by 
the Mexican New Orleans Exposition Committee to make 
known the result of their labors at the great International 
Exhibition, the department decided to forward the various 
collections to the United States in order that they might 
be properly verified, inasmuch as it was well-nigh impossi- 
ble to do so in this country, owing to the lack of authorities 



104 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

with which to perform the work of making a library of 
classifications. The articles failed to reach their destina- 
tion, having been lost on the steamer City of Merida, 
which was burned in the Bay of Havana, on August 29, 
1884. 

The members of the commission therefore determined to 
make every effort to replace the lost collections, and went 
to work with such good will and energy, that within the 
short period of three months they had succeeded in making 
a new collection, which, although somewhat incomplete, 
figured conspicuously among the exhibits of the Exposition 
in question. The collection consisted of 462 specimens of 
mammalia and birds, 300 of reptiles and fishes, 7,000 
varieties of insects, 2,000 classes of plants, and 965 
samples of rocks and fossils. 

The faculty of the Smithsonian Institution at Washing- 
ton, furnished material assistance to the Mexican Engineers 
of the Department of Natural History, in their work of 
classifying many specimens, and in the identification of 
others, thus confirming the novelty of quite a number. 

The Museum of the Commission was located in Puebla, 
in a building comparatively small ; but as the numbers of 
specimens secured by the Department of Natural History 
was somewhat larger, and was subsequently increased by 
the addition of others presented by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tute, together with many more obtained by Mr. Ferrari 
Perez through interchanges with various scientific institu- 
tions in the United States, the Government decided on 
March 31, 1886, to place at the disposal of the Exploring 
Commission, a portion of the ancient Military College of 
Tacubaya, for the establishment of its museum. The 
articles forming the collections were accordingly immedi- 
ately transferred to the new location, which was formally 
opened to the public on April 2d, 1887. The museum 
contains two spacious halls, in which are placed to public 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 105 

view, and arranged in cases, woods and construction mate- 
rials, also specimens of zoology, mineralogy and geology, 
scientifically numbered and classified. The Department of 
Natural History is located in the building occupied by the 
museum in Tacubaya, and possesses departments arranged 
for classification, exhibition, and shops for preparing the 
samples and specimens. Up to the present writing explor- 
ations have been made of isolated sections of Lower Cali- 
fornia, and, from October to December, 1886, in the 
islands of the coast of Campeche. 

STATISTICS. 

III. At the same time that a study was being made of 
the geography of the country, the collection of general 
statistics received a remarkable impetus from the Secretary 
of Fomentation. For the formation of a bureau in this 
interest, several measures were inaugurated in 1877 and 
appeals were made to the local authorities requesting infor- 
mation concerning the value of country and city real estate 
throughout the various States, as well as detailed accounts 
relative to the agricultural products everywhere harvested 
with a view to compiling these statistics and classifying 
them under different heads. An auxiliary commission was 
appointed to take charge of the preliminary work in the 
office of the Secretary of Fomentation, to which was 
intrusted the organization and management of this Bureau 
of Statistics, the classification of the different subjects 
which it comprises, the place to be assigned to communica- 
tions from abroad in such matters and, finally, a compara- 
tive study of the proceedings had in other countries in this 
class of work. 

The work done in this line, up to that time was of little 
consequence. Certain schedules relating to the census of 
the city of Mexico covering the }^ears 1875, 1876 and a 



106 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

part of 1877, were about completed; in them the number 
of inhabitants of each ward was given, the permanent and 
floating population, the mortality in the eight larger wards 
into which the city is divided, the prevalent diseases in 
alphabetical order; the deaths, the seasons being taken into 
consideration, aswell asthe meteorological observations, and 
the localities in which they occurred, as also their classifi- 
cation by sex, age, civil condition, etc. A beginning was 
made also to collect data, with a view to making these 
schedules embrace the entire Federal district. 

General Management of the Bureau of Statistics. 

On the 26th of May, 1882, a legal enactment was passed 
establishing a general management of the Bureau of 
Statistics in the department of the Secretary of Fomen- 
tation. This bureau is charged with obtaining, compiling, 
classifying, and publishing periodically, in comparative 
schedules, the data pertaining to this branch of business. 
The law fixes as a basis for the compilation of statistics : 
The census of the nation, classifying its inhabitants by sex, 
age, nationality, profession, industry or labor by which 
they subsist, civil condition and if able to read and write; 
the tax on farms, city real estate and mining property; the 
list of agricultural products and of industrial pursuits, with 
a view to the production and consumption of raw mate- 
rials; commercial trade in imports and exports and inter- 
state commerce ; a schedule of the public schools and of 
charitable institutions ; public highways and neighboring 
roads, ship routes, telegraphs and railroads; the adminis- 
tration of civil and criminal law ; religious worship ; the 
amount of the public revenue ; the condition of the army, 
its expenses, and military and naval pensions. In these 
arrangements, the obligation of the State government and 
of the political, judicial and municipal authorities to aid the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 107 

General Government in the better fulfillment of the law, is 
pointed out, as well as how these functionaries or em- 
ployes cannot excuse themselves from furnishing the 
statistics asked for by the Secretary of the Bureau. 

The arrangement for the organization of the bureau of 
general statistics was made on the 10th of June, 1883, by 
virtue of the memorial submitted by Mr. Penafiel with the 
view that it should serve as a basis of application for the 
enactment of the 26th of May, 1882. 

General Census. — The provision in regard to this, pre- 
scribes that it should take place every ten years, the period 
designated having always to terminate with the figure zero 
or the figure five. For a recount of the inhabitants, the 
actual population is to serve as a basis, and this being veri- 
fied, the data for the resident population shall be obtained. 
The census of each family or home, should be obtained 
nominally, by means of lists containing data relative 
to the members of the family present or absent. The 
actual population of each locality is established by the 
number of persons, minors or of age, actually present 
when the census is taken, the traveling inhabitants and 
those to arrive, being taken into consideration, for the 
purpose of determining their liability to taxation. Every 
person present, in any locality of the national territory 
during the day of the census, without excepting any class 
or kind, shall be obligated to write his name in the census 
schedule, whether he has a family or home, whether a 
traveler, a resident of the vicinity, a non-resident, a 
foreigner, a member of the army, a native of the country, 
a minister of worship or a public official. In regard to 
absent parties, it shall simply be necessary to note whether 
they have a family and if they are casually absent from their 
homes during the day of the census. The Mexican consuls 
shall collect data relative to residents of Mexico in foreign 
countries, on the same day that the national census is taken* 



108 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The lists or schedules shall be filed personally by the 
head of the family, or by some one under his direction, by 
the chiefs of the military departments, the superintendents 
of the prisons or hospitals, by the principals of colleges, 
by the owners, superintendents, managers or heads of inns, 
boarding houses, hotels, etc., before the hour of twelve 
o'clock of the day fixed for t*he census. Those without 
any domicile, and every traveler without a fixed abode, 
shall, on the evening of the census, inscribe his name on the 
list kept where he may take up his lodging, prior to noon 
on the day of the census. The municipal authorities col- 
lect the list of each territorial division within their jurisdic- 
tion, and shall forward them to the general manager of the 
Bureau of Statistics within a month, at the farthest, from 
the day designated for the taking of the census, availing 
themselves of the data relative to the population taken from 
these lists, for the purpose of making them known to the 
districts, territory or State to which they may respectively 
belong, but, without using the secret details for determining 
the civil condition of individuals, or for other purposes than 
that of compiling the local schedule for the resident 
population. The data to be noted with regard to the move- 
ment of population, must refer to births, marriages and 
deaths. The judges of the civil tribunals and the ministers 
of different worship, who take cognizance of the number 
of these incidents because of the ceremonies in which they 
take part, shall be obliged to submit, monthly, to the 
respective municipal authorities, the necessary notifications ; 
all the municipalities of the country shall remit them, each 
month, to their respective States, district and Federal ter- 
ritories, and these, in turn, to the general manager of the 
Bureau of Statistics. 

Every foreigner who arrives with a view to becoming a 
resident or establishing himself in the Republic, is obliged 
to enter his name upon the municipal schedule of the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 109 

locality in which he establishes himself, and to procure the 
ticket of the respective vicinity. The superintendents of 
ports and municipalities shall furnish information to the 
Bureau of Statistics, concerning the number of immigrants 
and emigrants, in accordance with the printed schedules 
furnished to them for that purpose. 

As regards the branch relating to territory, it comprises 
the details of territorial division, physical description, geo- 
logical, hydrographical and climatological division, and 
the topographical plans of the territory. These data are 
provided annually by the municipal authorities, by the 
Governors of the States or by commissions appointed by 
the Minister of Colonization. 

The agricultural census comprises information concern- 
ing the number of estates adapted to cultivation of alimen- 
tary, industrial and horticultural plants, which grow in 
each municipality, and also the number of those not under 
cultivation ; their area, much or little cultivation, manner 
and method of tilling, character of implements, cultivation 
by shares, the number of farms rented out, the number of 
owners of cultivated lands, the number of renters, the kind 
of products, woodlands, their kinds, extent and preserva- 
tion, cattle, their kinds, wild animals and fish, raw and 
liquid products of each cultivated farm, the unit of value 
of the dollar and the unit of measure of each product ; the 
price of each hectare of land, the number of laborers and 
the wages paid them, the annual yield of each cultivated 
farm, the consumption of its products in the home and 
outside market. 

The industrial census contains data relative to the num- 
ber and class of industrial establishments, the mechanical 
force employed, the fuel consumed, the raw and liquid prod- 
uct of the works, the prices, number of laborers and their 
wages, the consumption of the industrial product in the 
market at home and elsewhere. 



110 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The information relating to the mining industry, com- 
prises name of the mineral or mineral district, that of the 
mine and its character, mines or veins in development or 
suspended, the output and value of the mineral product, 
the product subjected to treatment, its quantity and value, 
the number of milLs not operated, the workmen employed 
in the development of the mine, the machinery, animals, 
the value of the former and the cost of the latter ; raw 
materials consumed in the development and in the mills, the 
number of employes and their wages, a comparison be- 
tween the cost of production and the revenue from the 
work ; special data relative to silver and gold, the coining 
of money, the assays of the mills and mints, the importa- 
tion and exportation of mineral products. These data are 
collected every two years. 

The information relative to public instruction, embraces 
the public school course, from the rudiments or the instruc- 
tion of children to the professional degrees, instruction in 
the different grades of these classes, and the methods pur- 
sued, whatever may be the authorities, bodies or individuals 
responsible for them. The institutions are classified into 
six groups : schools of primary and rudimentary instruc- 
tion, schools of secondary instruction or intermediary and 
preparatory, schools of the higher or professional grade, 
special schools for the blind and deaf mutes ; schools, 
societies or scientific bodies, literary and artistic. In the 
professional establishments are included law schools, notary 
institutions and business colleges, medical colleges, surgery, 
pharmacy and obstetrics, agricultural and veterinary, en- 
gineers, assayers and metallurgists ; schools of architecture 
and construction, painting, sculpture and engraving, the 
arts and sciences, commercial and business schools, con- 
servatories of music, elocution, and military and naval 
academies. 

The secretaries of the different States will furnish to 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. HI 

the manager of the Bureau of Statistics, the data relating 
to national institutions and to those of the Federal district 
and territory ; those relating to institutions maintained by 
State funds, will be furnished, by the municipal authorities, 
under the supervision of the Governors. The managers of 
primary and secondary educational establishments, not 
national, furnish in duplicate, the last day of each year, 
to the municipal authorities of its locality, the respective 
information, in the manner determined by the super- 
intendent. 

Under the head of matters relating to the administration 
of civil and criminal justice, are included the tribunals and 
their judicial organization for civil, criminal and military 
affairs, the judges and their salaries, the punishments in- 
flicted, the employes connected with the courts. These 
statistical data are furnished by the Federal tribunals, by 
the tribunals of the State and by the judges of the first class. 

Under the head of data relating to internal and foreign 
commerce, are comprised statistics of general trade, special 
kinds of business, importation and exportation by sea, in 
national or foreign ships, the country or State where they 
embark, and whither bound; the quantity of goods, in 
weight, packages, measure or number; the value of imported 
and exported articles as shown by the invoice and also their 
market value ; the fiscal duty imposed. The subordinates 
of the Secretary of the Treasury and the fiscal managers of 
the several States, will furnish these data. 

The following are the data relating to navigation; mari- 
time activity, with the arrival and departure of ships, their 
nationality, tonnage and crew, the passengers and freight 
they carry and details relating to subsidized vessels. The 
data relating to the national marine, shall comprise : the 
number, class and crew of national vessels; the subordinates 
of the Secretaries of the Treasury, War and Navy will 
furnish these data. 



112 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The department of revenue will be limited to informa- 
tion relating to taxes and the amount of the fiscal revenue 
and the revenue of the different States, the municipal 
revenues being separated from those which properly be- 
long to the State or nation. 

The data relating to the administrative departments are: 
the diplomatic and consular bodies, a list of foreigners, 
their nationality and civil condition ; births, marriages and 
deaths of Mexican citizens in foreign countries; consular 
advices relative to imports and exports; appropriations and 
general expenses ; the public debt at home and abroad ; 
the army and its organization, its expenses and soldiers' 
pensions ; the formation and instruction of the army and 
navy; colonization, highways, telegraphs, telephones and 
railroads : lighthouses and meteorology ; police and public 
peace ; post-offices and their organization ; offices of the 
civil registrar ; the amount of business transacted by the 
public registrar of realty and transactions of the notarial 
department; financial and charitable institutions, prisons 
and asylums, appropriations, expenses and revenues of the 
States, their militia force, public works and by-roads. 
The Secretaries and Governors of the States shall furnish 
these data every four months. 

An auxiliary branch of the Bureau of Statistics, is estab- 
lished in each municipality, composed of the chief munici- 
pal representative, a person elected from amongst the most 
prominent residents of the locality and a professor of 
primary instruction in the same place. This commission 
shall be obliged to aid the local authority in all the work of 
collecting data. In the capitals of the States, the com- 
missions shall be composed of an agent appointed by the 
Secretary of Public Works and two others to be designated 
by the Governor of the State, and, in their case, by the 
Governor of the District and the corresponding dignitaries 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 113 

of the Federal territory. All Federal employes shall be 
agents of the bureau for the collection of statistics. 

The Secretary of Fomentation can do honor to those 
persons who indicate a special aptitude for statistical work, 
by conferring upon them diplomas or gold or silver medals, 
according to the merit they have displayed. The data or 
statistical information, shall be entered in schedules or lists 
in triplicate, one of which shall be forwarded to the capitals 
of the States for the first compilation, another for the 
bureau of general statistics and the third to be reserved in 
case of loss, or repetition of the same work. Such are 
the principal provisions contained in the regulations organ- 
izing the work of general statistics in Mexico. 

In 1883, the national Hygienic Congress, in fixing the 
basis for the organization of the department relative to the 
movement of population, classified maladies to be listed in 
the mortality schedules, for the medical branch of the 
bureau of statistics ; laid down rules of classification for the 
data on mortality, prescribed the requisites of a medical 
certificate in cases of death and of registration of births, 
marriages and burials. 

CARTOGRAPHY. 

IV. As has been said, in 1877 there were commenced by 
the Secretary of Fomentation the labors directed towards 
the study of the necessities, situation and the relation of 
the localities of the country, as a means of providing, with 
better success, for the improvement of the different 
branches of the government. By the first attempts, an 
improvement of the geographical maps and a correction of 
the statistical data, were secured. 

A commission of engineers was appointed in January of 
the same year which devoted itself to presenting, in cata- 
logue form, the geographical position, plans and maps of 



114 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

roads and cities, itineraries and other reliable documents 
now existing. The plan was discussed which should be 
followed in a new class of work, the vast extent of the 
country being taken into account, the competent service 
which might be secured, and the possibility of increasing it 
with auxiliary forces. 

At last a plan was adopted that could lead to immediate 
results, consisting in the designation of astronomical locali- 
ties on the route of all telegraph roads of the Republic, 
which would serve as a basis for reducing to a systematic 
whole the data obtained, and as a foundation upon which 
the subsequent topographical work may rest. This sys- 
tem would be aided by the designation of other points for 
the purpose of chronometry, on the roads running at right 
angles to the telegraph lines. 

It being now time to begin field engineering, an appeal 
was made to Congress on the 15th of November, 1877, 
asking that the President be authorized to re-establish 
exploration commissions charged with the collection of 
geographical and statistical data. 

It was then that the movement was initiated to send 
commissions to make a scientific study of the country, a 
movement with which the Secretary of Fomentation and 
Secretary of War placed themselves in harmony, by send- 
ing other mixed commissions of civil and military surveyors 
for the purpose of increasing the size of the force, as well 
as to foster military studies by the formation of a strategic 
body, essentially practical. 

The cartographical commission, organized in said year 
of 1877, displayed, from the first, an assiduity deserving of 
praise, as it organized and arranged the necessary details 
of the work, in four months; traced the outlines on thirty- 
five sheets, formulating at the same time, a plan for the 
necessary publications. The sketches of the work done in 
the Valley of Mexico, as well as those relating to Tehuan- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 115 

tepee, were reduced to a scale 1:100,000 and 1:500,000 
respectively, and to 2:000,000 the four sheets which were 
completed and printed in 1877. 

The general administrative itinerary map recently com- 
pleted, fixed the different localities in which are to be 
found the principal and subordinate managements of the 
customs post-offices, heads of the treasury department, 
banks, etc. It is made on the scale 1:200,000 and divided 
into nine parts ; the map of " Exploration of the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec " originally prepared by the commission in- 
trusted with the study of the ground, on a scale of 
1 :250,000 with reference to the meridian of Greenwich ; 
the cartographic department, relating it to the meridian of 
Mexico, by reducing it to a scale of 1 : 500,000. The " Topo- 
graphical chart of the neighborhood of Puebla," has been 
made and drawn by this department, advantage having 
been taken of the labors of the geographic exploring party. 
This map is made in nine pieces. The " Telegraphic and 
Eailroad Chart " prepared under the instructions of Minister 
Eiva Palacio to facilitate the study of the different railroad 
concessions, telegraph lines and routes of maritime com- 
munication, contains the communities which the projected 
roads traverse, the lighthouses in the different harbors and 
the meteorological stations. 

All these data came into service for the (t General Geo- 
graphic Chart of the Republic," ordered made in 1881, by 
Mr. Fernandez Leal, at that time performing the duties of 
the Secretary of Public Works. The astronomical posi- 
tions which had been fixed from the several capitals of 
the States, and those determined by the boundary commis- 
sions of Guatemala and the United States and the charts 
of the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and of part of the 
Pacific Ocean, arranged by the American Marine service, 
reduced to a scale of 1:300,000, were also materials 
which served for the preparation of the general map to 



116' THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

which we are referring and which was published in the year 
1883. 

Several works are about to be completed in the carto- 
graphical department, namely : another general geographical 
chart of the Republic; a complete map of the Federal Dis- 
trict containing the most recent data and a hydrographic 
chart. The cartographic department is composed of a man- 
aging engineer, three principal draughtsmen, two assistants 
and two pupils. 

OBSERVATORIES. 

V. There are several observatories in the Republic, of 
which the following are the principal ones : 

The Central Magnetic Meteorological Observatory. 

Its erection was determined upon on the 8th of February, 
1877, at the instance of General Vicente Riva Palacio, then 
Secretary of Public Works.* It was erected on the roof of 
the national palace, under the direction of architect 
Vicente E. Manero and the physical studies were undertaken 
on the 6th of March following, by the first exploring geo- 
graphical commission. In 1880 Engineer Manuel Fernandez 
Leal, Assistant Secretary of Public Works, obtained special 
aid from Congress for the observatory, granting it a special 
portion of the appropriation, it having been maintained up 
to that time by the resources of the commission already 
mentioned. 

Its force consisted of a manager, Mr. Mariano Barcena, 
one principal expert, four assistants and telegraph op- 
erator. 

To better advance the practical study of meteorological 
science, the Secretary of Public Works appealed to thehigher 



* Now of "Fomentation, Colonization, Industry and Commerce.' 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. H? 

authorities of tne States, requesting them to appoint com- 
petent persons to make observations of the atmospheric 
phenomena in connection with the Central Observatory, for 
which purpose the latter formulated and distributed the 
requisite informations to the official establishments of public 
instruction, individuals and persons, who, by reason of 
their scientific education, were qualified for such observa- 
tions. Some Governors, to properly respond to the request, 
determined to erect official observatories, or increase the 
number of those in existence. In this manner the Governors 
of San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Puebla, Guanajuato, 
Queretaro, Oaxaca and Mexico, lent their co-operation. 
An astronomical and meteorological observatory was 
ordered built by the Secretary of Public W6rks in the port 
of Mazatlan, Sinaloa. 

There are at present eleven official and eleven private 
stations in the country. The first are sustained by the 
States in which they are located and the attaches perform 
the duties without extraordinary compensation, the service 
of the latter is rendered by the individuals interested, with- 
out any remuneration. The Secretary of Fomentation 
pays for the services of the Mazatlan Observatory, and 
also aids the other auxiliary institutions, by the distribu- 
tion of instruments through the Central Observatory. 

His co-operation was also asked on behalf of the heads 
of departments and the employes of the Federal telegraph 
offices and telegraphic corporations, for the daily compara- 
tive study of atmospheric phenomena. The corresponding 
observatories and the Central, began to communicate their 
observations to each other by means of the telegraph, the 
information concerning the condition of the weather in the 
respective localities, being transmitted daily and the 
schedule of daily observations with relation to the instruc- 
tions published by the office at the capital, being submitted 
monthly. Thus it was, that in a few months, after the 



118 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

inauguration of the service, a meteorological foreign system 
was fully established. 

The installation of the Central Observatory was made 
known to nearly all the observatories, academies and scien- 
tific societies of America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania, 
and an international service was immediately started, which 
accepted the invitation given at the beginning of April, to 
take part in the international meteorological observations, 
to be conducted under the auspices of the International 
Congress of Meteorologists, and to take place in Vienna in 
1873. From the first of May, 1877, the office made obser- 
vations of atmospheric conditions, without interruption, at 
the same instant, in which they are made in Washington, 
Paris, Greenwich, Vienna and in nearly all the observatories 
of the first class in the world. The corresponding hour 
for these observations in Mexico is 5 :32 in the morning. 
In several States of the Republic the same observations are 
made and the uniform results are published in the bulletins 
of the Signal Service department in Washington, for circu- 
lation throughout the entire world. 

In the vast field of study embraced by the observatory, 
is included the greater part of many problems of atmos- 
pheric conditions in relation to climatology, public health, 
mortality and changes in population ; for which work the 
co-operation of the public registrars and of the principal 
hospitals, was sought and secured. 

In the observatory, observations are made every hour 
during the day and night, and the data obtained in the 
office and those sent in by those co-operating elsewhere, are 
calculated, discussed, arranged and printed. Observations 
are made of the thermometer, psicrometer, anemoscope, 
ozonometer and especially of the condition of the heavens. 
The hourly changes of the temperature of the water are 
noted; barometric observations are made every quarter of 
an hour at the approach of the tropical hours and study is 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 119 

made of atmospheric atoms wafted by different winds which 
blow in the Valley of Mexico ; of the micography applicable 
to the same seismographic studies of actinometry, atmos- 
pheric electricity, etc. 

The observatory is always open to the public ; it decides 
questions submitted to it in matters included in its field 
of operation ; examines, gratuitously, the instruments sub- 
mitted to it for such purpose; it furnishes, in detail, all 
the data collected by it relating to meteorology and its ap- 
plication, and sends information daily to the press, hospi- 
tals and drug stores of the capital. 

From the time of its inauguration, the observatory has 
issued publications of importance, among which should be 
mentioned those relating to the periodical observation of the 
phenomena of vegetable life in connection with meteorolog- 
ical changes. With these data, the Botanical Calendar is 
composed, which has appeared monthly since July, 1877, in 
the Bulletin of the Ministry of Public Works. In this is 
observed, the inception, the culmination and the decadence 
of florescence of many plants, wild and domestic, of the 
Valley of Mexico, and the dates are indicated on which the 
crops are planted and harvested, the appearance of the 
growing crops, the dates on which the foliage of trees falls 
and buds, and on which the field grass springs into life. 
The observatory publishes, besides: The Meteorological 
Bulletin of the Ventral Observatory in which the labors 
performed by this institution are technically and minutely 
explained: The Monthly Meteorological Review, which con- 
tains, in epitome, the comparative data of the observatory 
and corresponding sections: The Monthly Climatological 
Review which was first published in January, 1881, to 
make known the data collected by the telegraph operators 
and civil registrars: The Weather Bulletin, with the daily 
account of the meteorological conditions observed in the 
different localities of the country. 



120 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The engineers of the observatories have prepared 
and published the following : A Table to reduce to 0° 
th'e Barometric pressure in the Valley of Mexico, and 
in all localities which may be subject to the same mod- 
erate pressure : The Meteorological Telegraphic Key which 
facilitates and secures uniformity in the daily transmis- 
sion of foreign observations; The Tables for Hygro- 
metrical Calculations: The Barometric Tables relating 
to the correction and application of barometric science, 
applied to all the altitudes of the Republic ; Studies of 
Comparative Meteorology, in four volumes, in which are 
discussed the data of the central observatory in comparison 
with those of the corresponding Mexican stations and with 
those of foreign observatories that may have forwarded 
their observations ; The Psycrometric Tables, prepared for 
the Valley of Mexico, and the necessary corrections to make 
them applicable to any other altitude within the limits of 
the Republic ; The Colorations of the Heavens, a work in 
which are discussed the different hypotheses concerning the 
twilight colorations which have attracted universal attention 
since the year 1883; and, finally, A Catalogue of Meteors 
prepared in the observatory during several years. 

The Central Observatory is in communication with the 
larger part of- the observatories and academies of the world 
to be found in the following nations : United States, 
Central America, South America, Cuba, Sweden, Norway, 
Denmark, Russia, Holland, Germany, Switzerland,Belgium, 
France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, England, Greece, Turkey, 
Egypt, several islands of Asia, China, Japan, Australia, 
the Sandwich Islands, Saxony, Bavaria, Austria, Ireland, 
Roumania and Africa. The number of institutions with 
which the observatory conducts a correspondence is, 375 in 
foreign lands and 488 domestic institutions, making a total 
of 863. 

The principal instruments in use, are: barometers of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 121 

different systems, barographic instruments, thermometers 
showing the highest and the lowest conditions, ther- 
mometers of solar radiation, terrestrial and centesimal, 
in large numbers; electric termographs, psycrometers, 
actinometers, anemometers, anemometrograph, anemos- 
copes, instruments for the study of atmospheric cor- 
puscules, including photomicrography, pluviometers, 
atmometers, ozonometers, cianometers, photometers, elec- 
trometers; apparatus for earthquakes, seismographs, 
meteorograph of P. Secchi, with all their accessories; 
magnetometer, polar and solar compasses, chronometers, 
catetometer, a binocular microscope, astronomical telescope, 
theodolites, terrestrial and celestial globe, instruments for 
dividing the sun's rays, a galvanometer. It possesses, be- 
sides, a telegraph office with all its equipments. The 
instruments represent in their present condition, a capital 
of more than $9,000. 

The library of the office contains more than 2,000 
volumes, the greater part of which has been otained from 
the observatories, academies and professors entertaining 
relations with the observatory, in exchange for the services 
rendered to them by the observatory. 

The general government has allowed for its maintenance 
the sum of $11,797.50, annually. 
The Meteorological Astronomical Observatory of Mazatlan. 

This was established through the agency of the Secretary 
of Public Works in the year 1879. The building was 
erected at the expense of the national treasury on an arti- 
ficial esplanade on the summit of the mountain known as 
Vigia. The scientific work was begun on the 15th of May 
of the. same year, 1879, under the direction of engineer 
Fiacro Quijano. 

From that date the first international simultaneous ob- 
servation is made daily at 5 h. 02 m. 00 s. and a list is sent 
monthly to the observatory at Washington, at the same 



122 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

time as to the Central of Mexico. The meteorological 
daily service receives attention at seven o'clock a. m., two 
o'clock p. m. and nine o'clock p. m. and on several other 
occasions during the day and during a part of the night, and 
an account of these is also forwarded monthly to the Cen- 
tral Meteorological Observatory, and the details of the day 
preceding daily, by telegraph. For the weather predic- 
tions, the greatest number of observations possible is made 
during the day and night at the approach of storms, 75 per 
cent of the predictions being verified. 

The Observatory of Mazatlan is also charged with the 
study of the tides by means of the mareograph, an auto- 
matic instrument presented by the " coast survey " of the 
United States for the purpose of obtaining a greater num- 
ber of data to compare with those furnished by this class 
of service, as organized in the North American ports. 

The apparatus was put in position in December, 1879 ; 
the lists are forwarded monthly to the American office and 
to the management of the Port of Mazatlan. 

In November of 1879, a code of meteorological signals 
was adopted, for the prediction, as near as possible, of 
weather probabilities. 

The astronomical labors of the observatory are directed 
to a calculation of time by means of solar and stellar 
meridians, whereby is announced daily, by means of a bell, 
the noon hour, for the regulation of the clocks in the bay. 
The relative geographical conditions of the observatory 
and the light-house have been determined; observations 
were made of the transit of Venus by means of the solar 
disc on the 6th of January, 1882, and of the comet of 1884 
on the 19th and 21st of January; as well as other important 
observations. 

The instruments necessary for the performance of its 
work, were donated to the observatory at the time of its 
installation; barometers, psycrometers, thermometers of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 123 

the greatest and least power, thermometers of Fahrenheit 
and centigrade, anemoscope, anemometer, instruments 
with which to measure the amount of the evaporation of 
water, in the shade and in the open air, and a pluviometer. 
It also possesses a transit telescope of 31 inches focal 
distance, three of a clear objective opening, with a microm- 
ter having an adjustable rim for the eye. Attached to the 
telescope is a vertical ring of six inches in diameter, and 
an adjustable pivot with the geometrical ruler, which the 
verniers contain and which approximate angles of 10" and 
10". It has contrivances for elevating the upper portion 
of the instrument and its supports, 180° above the lower 
portion (placet, ). There are also in the observatory, an 
American marine chronometer of the manufacture of Negus, 
N. Y. For the observation of Venus, an equatorial was 
purchased in 1882 from William Gregy, New York, of 
2 m. 30 s. focal distance and of an amplifying diameter of 
70. In 1884, there were obtained from the Central Observ- 
atories of Astronomy and Meteorology, an altazimut of 10 
inches in diameter in the horizontal and vertical tubes, with 
an approximation of 10 seconds, and of the make of 
Troughton and Simms; a small cubic barometer, six free 
thermometers, one of the largest and one of the smallest 
calculating strength; a psycrometer and an anemometer; 
all of a decimal calculation and of the make of Negritti 
and Zambra. 

In addition to these meteorological and astronomical 
instruments, the observatory has a telephone and signal 
outfit with which the watch announces vessels that appear 
in sight and signals the weather probabilities as made known 
by the observatory. The library of the office is not very 
large but contains national and foreign works of merit. 
The officers consists of a manager, an assistant and an 
office boy. It receives a government appropriation of 
$4,064.30 annually. 



124 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



THE NATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY OF TACUBAYA. 

The idea of constructing a national observatory in Cha- 
pultepec was suggested in the year 1842 by General Pedro 
Garcia Conde ; some appropriate work was done in the 
locality and instructions were sent to Europe for the man- 
ufacture of three large instruments, a meridian telescope, 
an astronomical pendent and a*n equatorial, at a cost of 
$10,000. 

Scarcely had the new administration, resulting from the 
revolution of Tuxtepec, been inaugurated, when it was ar- 
ranged that the palace of Chapultepec should be used as a 
national astronomical observatory, and, in elfect, Engineer 
Angel Anguiano was commissioned to prepare designs. 
These being presented and approved, the work of construc- 
tion was begun on the 16th of May, 1877. The inauguration 
of the observatory took place on the 5th of May, 1878, and 
the first astronomical work was undertaken, which consisted 
in the geographical location of the establishment. The 
meteorological list was arranged in June of the same year. 

In 1882 the Government resolved to transfer the observa- 
tory from Chapultepec to Tacubaya. With this view, the 
afore-mentioned Mr. Anguiano, presented a design of an 
observatory, which was also accepted. This was to be 
constructed in the center of the garden belonging to the old 
Archbishopric of Tacubaya, then occupied by the military 
college. The work of construction was begun in October 
of 1882. 

After the observation in Chapultepec of the transit of 
Venus through the sun's disc on December the 6th of that 
year, the work of dismounting and transferring the instru- 
ments to Tacubaya was begun, and in a few months they 
were arranged there temporarily. The observatory resumed 
its interrupted scientific labors in September, 1883, continu- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 125 

ing them up to the present regularly and without interrup- 
tion. 

The studies undertaken in this establishment, since its 
installation, are innumerable. Its meteorological observa- 
tions were at first made three times a day, as well as the 
observations of the conditions of the barometer and of the 
wet and dry thermometer; daily indications of the highest 
and lowest temperature and of the pluviometer. Subse- 
quently the observations were made hourly from 7a.m. till 9 
p. m. because of the necessity for obtaining certain indispen- 
sable meteorological data for the improvement of astronom- 
ical calculations. At present, the ordinary observations 
are made from 7 a. m. 12 p. m. and 9 p. m., as well as 
those of the elevation and inclination of the magnetic needle. 
Important studies have been made, with a view to examining 
the variations that might take place in the measurement of 
horizontal angles, and in relation to the variations of the 
level, changes of time, and of full moons. 

Observations have been made with sufficiently satisfac- 
tory success of the transit of Venus through the solar disc, 
in 1882 ; a solar eclipse on the 16th of May, 1883 ; the 
appearance of a periodical comet in January, 1884; an 
annular eclipse of the sun on March 16, 1885 ; the planet 
Eucrates, in 1889, and the total eclipse of the sun on the 
22nd of December of the same year, by means of two 
commissions sent to Progreso (State of Yucatan) and to 
Charcas (State of San Luis Potosi), respectively. 

On the 10th of January, 1891, the observatory assumed 
the task of determining the position of stars, which might 
serve for reference in their locations to verify the photo- 
graphic chart of the heavens in the zone embraced by the 
observatory, which is from 10° to 16°. These data are 
published in the Bulletin under the name of " Meridian 
Observations for the Formation of a Catalogue of Stars in 
the Observatory of Tacubaya." 



126 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The first Annual of the observatory, was given to the 
press in 1881, containing explanatory articles on several 
subjects; tables for the solution of practical astronomical 
problems; meteorological observations made in the office 
during the year ; geographical locations of certain parts of 
the Republic approved by the observatory, either because 
of being its own work, or because of the authenticity of 
their sources and the means employed in securing them; 
data relative to the change of signals, by commissions or 
persons making and forwarding them ; a calendar ; the 
report which the manager of the observatory, Angel 
Anguiano, submits annually to the Secretary of Public 
Works, relative to the work done in the establishment, and 
many other details and information of interest in fostering 
astronomical science. 

The Bulletin is another semi-monthly publication 
issued by the observatory. Its purpose is to make known 
the work done in the office; it publishes original articles, 
translations or compilations of important astronomical 
work; information concerning the discoveries and progress 
of astronomical science, etc., etc. ; and it contains besides, 
a list of meridian observations with the date on which they 
were made, the name of the star observed, its transit through 
the middle line, a corrected transit, the just ascent of the 
star and the error of the pendent and its progress. Its 
publication was begun on January, 1890. 

The following are the most notable instruments of the 
observatory: a large equatorial which has an aperture of 
0" 38 ; the total length of the cylinder is 5 m 40 ; the height, 
from the pavement of the point of intersection of the polar 
needle with that of declination is 3 m 28 ; the foundation is 
of wrought iron. The examination of the orbs of inclina- 
tion and just elevation is made by means of a single tele- 
scope and this is lighted by a combination of prisms. 

For small movements in a direct elevation, there is a 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 127 

mechanism in one of the cog-wheels which operates the 
clock movement. The instrument contains five glasses of 
different amplifying power, of 200, 360, 750 and 1,000 
diameters. It was manufactured by Grubb, in Dublin, 
and its total cost in Mexico was $13,000. 

A Meridian Compass with an aperture m 203 and 
2 m 74, focal distance ; it has a vertical compass on each side 
of m 91 in diameter; it is supported on iron with a lower 
mechanism for the lesser movements of the altazimut, and 
to easily locate the instrument in the meridian ; it has two 
telescopes of an objective opening of m 15 ; its cost is 
$10,000. 

A Transit Telescope of Estel, of an objective aperture 
of m 15. 

An Englisli Photolieliograph with an objective aperture 
m 10 of Dalmeyer's make. It cost $4,000. 

A /Small Equatorial with an objective aperture of m 
15, of Grubb's make. 

A Photographic Equatorial manufactured specially, in 
accordance with the regulations of the International 
Congress of 1887, whereby the observatory was to take 
part in the photographic preparation of a chart of the 
heavens. 

A Large Altazimut intended specially for the correction 
of the pendent and for a study of the sun spots, use being- 
made of the chronograph. It is of the English make of 
Troughton and Simms with an aperture of m 038 and a 
focal distance of m 85 ; the azimut compass measures m 
61, the vertical m 59; the micrometric telescopes approxi- 
mate 1". The eye-glass has two micrometric screws, the 
one horizontal, which moves the mounting of the reticule 
and the other, perpendicular to the former, which moves a 
horizontal bar. 

Several Marine (Jltronometers ; a pendent of median 
time with the corrections and adjuncts necessary to furnish 



128 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

the time to the public clocks. Two chronographs, one 
large cylindrical, and the other de lira. 

A Spectroscope which has five prisms situated in a circu- 
lar mounting, and which contains in its two faces the two 
objective adaptations of the synthetical and analytical tele- 
scope, in front of which is fixed a prism. The mounting 
is articulated and by means of springs and chains which coil 
and uncoil themselves on an axis, can increase and diminish 
their diameter and convert the faces of the prisms into dif- 
ferent angles by meaus of the luminous surface. When 
this reaches the last prism, it is reflected inwardly twice 
and then passes, by means of the same prisms, to the analy- 
tical telescope. 

Finally, among many other instruments to be found in 
the observatory, are a heliograph and a magnetometer; 
some ordinary thermometers of the highest and lowest 
temperature ; psychrometers ; several barometers and 
aneroids; anemoscopes; anemometers and pluviometers. 

The increase in its scientific relations which the national 
observatory attained since its inception, has been very 
great, thanks to the appreciation with which its labors have 
been recognized by foreign associations and institutions of 
a like character. At present, it entertains relations in 
Europe with Germany, France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, 
Belgium, Denmark and Great Britain; with Greece, 
Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Switzer- 
land, Eoumania, Turkey; in Asia, with China, India, Japan 
and Syria ; in Africa, with Egypt, Cape Colony, Guinea, 
the Island of Mauritius, the Island of Madagascar, and the 
Island of St. Helena; in Oceanica, with Australia, the 
Phillipine Islands, and New Zealand; in America, with 
Canada, the United States, Costa Rica, Salvador, Guatemala, 
Brazil, Columbia, Chili, Equador, English Guina, Peru, the 
Argentine Republic, Uruguay and Cuba. The total of 
observatories, academies and associations belonging to the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 129 

countries named, with which a correspondence is maintained 
by the establishment, is 423, the greater part of which 
exchanges their scientific publications with the observatory. 

The library, of which there are thirteen shelves, contains 
2,500 volumes. 

The staff of the observatory consists of a manager, first 
assistant, an employe to make the observations and one to 
make the calculations, a second assistant, a manipulator of 
the chronometers and a party to make the meteorological 
observations; a telegraph operator and a janitor. 

The general government devotes $21,208.85 to the estab- 
lishment, including $12,000 wherewith to continue the 
work of construction. 

The Central Astronomical Observatory . 

The Minister of Public Works, Vicente Riva Palacio, in 
accord with the President of the Republic, resolved upon the 
construction of the Central Astronomical Observatory. Its 
purpose was to give impetus to the geography of the country, 
to afford practice to the youth engaged in the study of as- 
tronomy, and, above all, to provide a staff of persons to 
make the calculations and observations necessary in the 
National Observatory of Chapultepec. 

The observatory was located in the upper portion of the 
National Palace, under the supervision of Engineer Vicente 
Manero. The work was completed at the end of September, 
1877, but the* first observations were made on the first of 
August previous, the day of its installation. 

The observatory has always been connected with the In- 
spection of highways, its labors are co-ordinated with those 
of the latter, according to requirements, and with those of 
the staff which the Department of Fomentation assigns to 
said Inspection. 

From the first, the observatorv was noted for the im- 



130 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

portance of its scientific labors, of which Engineer Fran- 
cisco Jimenez had charge. 

The latitudes of certain localities were fixed by telegraphic 
signals in the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Queretaro, San 
Luis Potosi, Guanajuato and Jalisco; a semi-daily table of 
arc-lines was published, formed by the latitude of Mexico, 
degree by degree from m to 70° which facilitates the calcula- 
tion of the rise and setting of the stars ; a celestial chart based 
on the horizon of Mexico; a pamphlet entitled, «« The Tele- 
scope and its Amplifying Power; " a dissertation on the 
method of determining the longitude of the seconds pend- 
ent and of the gravity in Mexico; a work entitled, " The 
Meridian Curve of Median Time."" Engineers Anguiano, 
Fernandez and Palafox co-operated in these labors. 
Other studies have been made, such as the " Table of Cal- 
culation," relating to the values of the azimut heaters, the 
level and colineation for the observations made of the 
transit in the latitude of Mexico. A resolution has been 
reached relative to the indulgence to be granted in topo- 
graphical operations, according to the instruments to be 
used in that connection; the most favorable time for mak- 
ing observations of terrestrial angles during these investiga- 
tions; and the inquiry relating to the astronomical 
refraction of the central table, it having been remarked 
that the European tables on this subject are unsatisfac- 
tory for the conditions of the locality. 

The transit of Mercury through the solar disc was also 
predicted in the observatory, as well as the solar eclipse, 
the first having been verified on the 6th of May, 1878, and 
the second on the 29th of July of the same year, and the 
observation of the partial eclipse of the sun on the 11th of 
January, 1880. 

The principal subsequent operations of the Central 
Observatory consist in the change of telegraphic signals 
for determining the longitude for the engineers employed 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 131 

in geographic surveys; to determine the time by meridian 
gradations for the regulation of the clocks of the capital ; 
to compare and regulate weights and measures with due 
precision ; and to fix the work to be done in the office by 
the students of the School of Engineers. 

The establishment possesses a transit telescope with a 
focal distance of 1.16 metres, and a movable objective 
opening of 69 millimeters; a zenith telescope with a fixed 
focus and a small movement which allows a widening or 
narrowing necessary for the stellar focus, and it. has a 
screw with a piuion which causes a variation in the intens- 
ity of the light, for the illumination at will of the threads ; 
another zenith telescope of the make of Troughton and 
Simms ordered in England in 1852, and issued by the 
Mexican commision in 1853 for tracing the northern bound- 
aries between the United States. It was also used by the 
commission of the Valley for fixing the geography of the 
city of Mexico in 1857, and in 1874, by the commission 
selected for the observation of the transit of Venus in Japan. 
Its azimut compass is m 31 in diameter with three nonius 
of an approximate reading of 30". It has a vertical quad- 
rant of ,n 15 in radius with a nonius of similar approxima- 
tion, with a telescope of l m 22 of focal distance, objectivity 
of m 0765, of a loose aperture; three celestial eye-glasses, 
one bent, the other straight, to be used in combination 
with a microscope divided into a hundred parts and a level, 
in the quadrant, whose divisions are 1" 00, with a curva- 
ture radius of 186 metres. It possesses, besides, four 
straight astronomical eye-glasses, with their corresponding 
helioscope, and also a terrestrial eye-glass ; a search tele- 
scope of 0" 25 focal distance of 0" 022,of a free opening, 
with a negative eye-glass. 

There is also in the observatory, an astronomical pendent 
of Vazquez, with a string for eight days; a universal alta- 
zimut, the azimut compass of which is m 26 in diameter, 



132 THE RICHES OE MEXICO 

with a telescope of m 042 of a free aperture whose reticule 
is of 5 vertical threads and three horizontal; another 
English altazimut of the make mentioned, received in 1882; 
its tubes have a diameter of 8 inches (English), divided 
into fractions of 5 minutes, and its readings are approxi- 
mated to a second with microscopes ; two chronographs 
ordered built directly in London in 1886 and the cost of 
which was 78 pounds sterling; together with several other 
instruments of less importance. 

Devoted, as the establishment is, at present, to geo- 
graphical pursuits, the greater part of the instruments which 
it possesses is distributed amongst the different commis- 
sions employed in several localities of the country in the 
performance of work under the auspices of the Secretary of 
Fomentation. 

PUBLIC MONUMENTS. 

VI. Notwithstanding the unfavorable condition affecting 
the public treasury, the Secretary of Public Works has 
undertaken and carried into effect, the erection of some 
monuments commemorative of the glorious deeds of illus- 
trious Mexicans, or of benefactors deserving the gratitude 
of their contemporaries. 

The principal monuments of this class, to be found in 
the Kepublic, are the following: — 

A Monument of Columbus. Mr. Anthony Escandon 
ordered this monument to be built at his own expense, to 
be erected in some public place of the Capital, and intrusted 
the French artist Mr. Cordier with the execution of the 
work. Its parts were . received in Mexico, in January, 
1876, and, on the 11th of April the following year, the 
work of erecting the monument was begun in the first 
arbor of the Avenue of Eeform, under the direction of 
Engineer Eleuterio Mendez. It was completed in August 
following. The monument consists of a foundation of 




T~ 




Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 

STATUE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 
City of Mexico. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 133 

basalt intermixed with trachite and of four steps of the 
same material, by which ascent is made to a platform 
paved with marble in two colors and surrounded by an 
iron railing supported by eight pillars of the same ma- 
terial, each pillar carrying five lamps provided with 
globes of opaque costal and adorned with projections of 
oxydized bronze. 

The two parts of the monument are of conchillated red 
marble of the Vosges. The first has four pillowed rests 
and the block has four tablets, that of the principal front- 
age containing the dedication to Christopher Columbus and 
being surmounted by the arms which the Catholic Kings 
gave to the great Admiral, in combination with those of 
Castile. The tablet facing south represents the construc- 
tion of the monastery of Santa Maria de la Rabida beneath 
the designs which the celebrated Father Marchena present- 
ed to Columbus. The tablet facing north represents the 
discovery of the Island of Guanhani, as Columbus is in the 
act of giving thanks to Providence, and shows the natives 
fleeing to the woods of the interior, when they discover 
him in the act. The tablet facing west contains a fragment 
of a letter written by Columbus to Raphadi Sauris and, 
lower down, the dedicatory of Mr. Anthony Escandon 
when donating the monument to Mexico. On the four pro- 
jections at the corners of the pedestal, appear four statues 
representing the following personages: to the front at the 
right of Columbus is Father Marchena, to the left Father 
Dehesa ; on the turn, to the right, Father Gante and to the 
left the Rev. Las-Casas. 

A pedestal stands on the second part of the monument, 
with four tablets having four projections, supports towards 
the front and finished with a cornice in the shape of an in- 
clined plane, on which appears Columbus pointing out his 
wonderful discovery to the old world. 

The statue of Columbus measures 3.90 metres, the ped- 



134 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

estal on which it rests 2.68 metres ; the frames 2.00 metres; 
the work itself, 4.47 metres; the basalt basis, 90 conti- 
metres. The entire monument is encircled by a number 
of basalt pillars through which is passed an iron chain. 

On the base of the principal frontage the following, 
inscriptions appears: "August, 1877 — General Porfirio 
Diaz, being President of the Republic, and Vicente Riva 
Palacio, Minister of Public Works, this monument was 
erected." The estimate of the work was $3,984 and the 
total cost, when completed, nearly $16,000. 

Hypsographic Monument. On the 19th of July, 1877, 
the Government determined upon the erection of this mon- 
ument at the intersection of the meridian which passes 
through the south corner of the front of the National 
Palace and the parallel which passes through the corner 
formed by the streets of the Seminary and the Arch- 
bishopric. The purpose for which this monument was 
constructed was to fix in a clear and definite manner the 
altitude of the different methods of comparison which have 
been used as a basis of the hydrographic operations for the 
city and valley of Mexico, as well as for the purpose of 
honoring the memory of the illustrious cosmographist, 
Enrico Martinez, who drew and superintended the tunnel 
work by which an exit was given to the river Cuautitlan in 
the year 1608. 

The designs and the work of construction were intrusted 
to the civil engineer, Francisco M. Jimenez, and the bronze 
portion of the statue which represents the city of Mexico 
was let out by contract to the sculptor, Miguel Norena, for 
the sum of $6,740. 

The large marble pedestal was finished on the 5th of May, 
1878, and on the same day of the year 1881, the bronze 
statue surmounting it was placed in position. 

The monument is properly located with relation to the 
astronomical meridian and embraces the following details : 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 135 

On top are four tablets which indicate the same level as is 
indicated in the sidewalk to the northwest of the National 
Palace, a level which had been determined previously in a 
general way by the measurements of the lakes. On the 
four sides of the plinth the signals are made of marble, in 
measurements by the metre, yard and vara. On one of the 
side tablets, the following inscription appears: " To the 
memory of the renowned cosmographist, Enrico Martinez. 
The Ministery of Public Works, 1878." On the others are 
to be seen : a plate containing a comparative plan of the city 
indicating the altitude above the mean tide at Veracruz; 
an apparatus illustrative of Lake Texcoco, with a reference 
scale; the geographical co-ordinations of the center of 
the monument, the magnetic inclination fixed in April 
of the same year, 1878, and the altitude of the base 
of comparison in relation to the lower tangent of the Aztec 
Calendar which at that time was located at the foot 
of the east tower of the Cathedral; an inscription which 
reads " General Porfirio Diaz, being President of the Re- 
public, and General Vicente Riva Palacio, Secretary of 
Fomentation, this monument was erected in the year 
1878." Then can be observed the plate containing the 
comparative plan in relation to the sidewalk on the north- 
west corner of the National Palace, and four horizontal 
channels with bronze rulers which indicate the median alti- 
tudes of lakes Xochimilco, San Cristobal, Xaltocan and 
Zumpango, according to the data furnished by the Com- 
mission of the Valley in 1862. 

The statue which surmounts the monument is an allegory 
of the city of Mexico, in the attitude of placing a crown 
upon a stone bearing the following inscription: 

" Enrico Martinez." 

The monument is four metres and 96 centimetres in 
height, and its cost was $12,724.14. 



136 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Monument to Ouauthemoc. In 1877, the Government 
resolved to embellish the Avenue of Keform with commem- 
orative monuments, dedicating them to Cuauthemoc and to 
the Aztec chiefs who distinguished themselves during the 
period of the conquest ; to Hidalgo and other heroes who 
aided in the movement of independence, and to Juarez and 
other notables of the Reform. For this purpose a conven- 
tion was called on the 23d of August of the same year, for 
the submission of designs of a monument to the first of the 
chiefs above named. Among the five submitted, the com- 
mittee designated for that purpose, selected, on the 15th of 
April, 1878, the design of Engineer Francisco M. Jimenez, 
who received the prize of $1,000 offered by the convention. 

The construction of the work was undertaken on the 5th 
of May following in the center of the second arbor of the 
Avenue of Reform, under the direction of the same party 
who had prepared the design. In 1881, certain changes 
were recommended by Engineer Jimenez, which were ap- 
proved by the Secretary of Fomentation, on account of 
which the estimates made at first, amounting to $152,031.50 
was reduced to $90,782.23. 

The bronze sculpture work was contracted to Mr. Miguel 
Norefia. From the month of April, 1884, when Engineer 
Jimenez died, the construction of the monument was in- 
trusted to Engineer Ramon Egea who superintended the 
work up to the time of its dedication, which took place 
the 21st of August, 1887, the anniversary of the day on 
which the last of the Aztec emperors was tortured by the 
conquerors. 

The principal base or foundation which supports the 
monument, is octagonal in form, built of stone from the 
vicinity, at a height of 1:50 metres above the level of the 
sidewalk corner. Eight bronze leopards, each two metres 
wide, resting on projecting pedestals, guard the entrances 
of the four stairways leading to the platform of the foun- 




HYPSOGRAPHIC MONUMENT IN MEMORY OF ENRICO MARTINEZ. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 137 

datioti, the floor of which is manufactured of Guanajuato 
gravel. On this foundation rests the lower part of the 
monument, which is square and in general appearance 
similar to the Teocalli with their flowing robes. 

In the angles, there are braces consisting of three large 
projecting stones which leave an open space in each front. 
In the front space, there is a block of bronze 4.02x1.40 
metres, bearing this inscription in bronze letters of 025 
metres : 

"To the memory of Cuauthemoc and of the warriors 
who fought heroically in the defence of their country 
MDXXI." 

In the rear space, to the west, there is another block of 
the same size with the following inscription : " Porfirio Diaz, 
President of the Republic, and Vicente Riva Palacio, Secre- 
tary of Fomentation, ordered this monument constructed 
MDCCCLXXVII; it was built by order of Manuel Gon- 
zalez, President of the Republic and the Secretary of 
Fomentation, Carlos Pacheco MDCCCLXXXIII." 

On the tablet facing north, there is a bas-relief in bronze, 
the same in size as the blocks already referred to, which 
represents the apprehension of Cuauthemoc at the moment 
when he takes hold of the poniard which Cortez carries in 
his belt and pronounces the words, " Take this dagger, then, 
and kill me with it." 

The bas-relief which faces the south represents the 
torture of the Aztec chief at the moment when he pro- 
pounds to the Lord of Tlacopam, the famous question, 
«' Is this a bath, or some other species of delight? " The 
figures of these bas-reliefs are 1.33 metres in height. 

The second portion of the monument has four groups 
of three columns in each angle; all of Aztec architecture, 
which rest in the angles of a pedestal having four inclined 
planes bearing these names and inscriptions: Cuitlahuac, 
Cacama, Tetlepanquetzal and Coanacoch, names of the four 



138 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

allied kings who distinguished themselves during the war 
of the conquest. 

In the intermediate columns, also a Toltec ornamentation, 
are also placed bronze insignia representing the weapons, 
banners and badges of the allied kings. The cornice work 
similar in design to that of the palaces of Uxmal and 
Palenque has a frieze of shields, armor and weapons of 
war, used and worn by the Aztec warriors. The upper- 
most portion of the monument consists of a pedestal with 
four tablets adorned with scrolls in the angles. The front 
tablet displays a bronze hieroglyphic of Cuauthemoc, that 
is to say ; an eagle which in its swoop touches with its bill 
the imprint of a human foot, which means, " The eagle 
that alighted." 

The pedestal is surrounded by a cornice ornamented with 
rattlesnakes intertwined, and on this is erected the statue 
of Cuauthemoc in the garb of a warrior and wearing a 
feather plume. He is clad in a cotton jacket and a cloak 
which falls from his shoulders, and he holds in his right 
hand an arrow which he is in the attitude of shooting at the 
enemy, while, at the same time, with his left hand he 
gracefully lifts the mantle. ' 

The statue is of bronze and four metres in height. The 
whole work is built of very hard, polished stone of a 
greenish gray color quarried in Puebla. The statue, bas- 
relief, leopards, emblems, tablets, frieze, and ornamenta- 
tion of the pedestal are made of bronze; weight 11,980 
kilograms and the total cost of the monument was 
$94,914. 

Monument of Chapultepec. In September, 1877, Engi- 
neer Agustin Diaz, professor and former student of the 
Military College, in the name of some of the members of 
the institution, asked permission from the Secretary of 
Fomentation to erect a monument to be dedicated to the 
memory of the students who fell at Chapultepec on the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 139 

13th of September, 1847, while fighting against the North 
American troops. 

The design was furnished by Engineer Ramon Rodriguez 
Arangayti who was also a student of the College, and who, 
as such, took part in the event referred to. The superin- 
tendence of the work was given in charge to Engineer 
Francisco de P. Herrera. On the 6th of September, 1881, 
the monument was completed; on the 13th of the same 
month, the anniversary of the battle of Chapultepec, it was 
solemnly dedicated by the President of the Republic. 

This monument is a simple one; it is a 6 m 50 in 
height and is erected on the spot where the bridge is to be 
found, where the students fell or were taken prisoners. 

It consists of a platform composed of six blocks of stone, 
one metre square and fifty centimetres high, on which rests 
a plinth of two metres in length and one and a half metres 
in width and one metre in height. On this plinth is placed 
the foundation stone of the five faced or star block, the 
dimensions of which are, l m 50 in length and width by 
l m 10 in height. On the front of the four tablets of the 
block commemorative inscriptions are engraved ; the foun- 
dation is composed of a large stone, the four corners of 
which display acanthus, leaves, bunched oak and laurel in 
bas-relief; of a small block of stone, decorated with 
Green sea-weed and finally of a filete on which rests the 
monolith bearing the inscriptions. This is 2 m 80 in height, 
l m 40 in length and m 80 in width and has four beveled 
corners. 

A palm tree in bas-relief overhangs the names of the 
students who perished. 

On the back of the monument are the names of the 
leaders, officers, and students taken prisoners in this 
glorious combat. The other two sides or faces of the 
monolith, contain a commemorative inscription and a dedi- 
cation of the monument. 



140 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The cap of the star stone which consists of a block l m 
30 in length, m 70 in width and l m in height, is orna- 
mented with a filete, a moulding or bead in pearls and a 
large ogee fluting of pearls, with figures of sea-weed. In 
the middle of cypress and laurel wreaths, is to be found 
the national coat of arms; the balance of the decorative 
work, consisting of evergreens, poppies, etc., etc. This is 
all in bas-relief ; the eagles are of bronze and the material 
of chiluca stone obtained from the quarries of the estate 
"DelCristo." 

The total cost of the monument was $9,676.05. 

There are also several other important monuments, in 
the different States of the Republic, which it would take too 
long to enumerate, amongst which, the most worthy of 
note are those built to the memory of the liberator, Hidalgo, 
in the community of Dolores and in the State of Chihua- 
hua. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.* 

VII. The old system of weights and measures of the 
colonial time prevailed in Mexico until 1857, when the 
French decimal metric system with a few modifications was 
established by the law of the 15th of March, that is to say ; 
the ara for surface and ground measurement ; the litre as 
the unit of contents as well for liquids as for solids ; the gram 
as a unit of weight, and the Mexican peseta, ten grams and 
ninety millograms in weight, as the monetary unit; but the 
enactment of the 15th of March, 1861, fixed as the unit of 
value, the silver dollar of the same quality and the same 
weight as it possesses at present. As a result of this enact- 
ment, a new department was organized in the Ministry of 



* Vide, " Commercial Development." 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 141 

Fomentation called «' General management of weights and 
measures," the purpose of which should be, to formu- 
late reduction tables of the old and new methods, design 
and examine the arrangements relating to new coins ; to 
submit designs and suggest legal changes on the subject, 
and to organize the work of market weighers and the mar- 
ket taxes. On the 10th of November, 1862, the respective 
tables were approved, in connection with the decimal 
metric system already established. 

The law of 1857 prescribed that, from the first of Janu- 
ary, 1862, this system should be used exclusively in 
Mexico ; but the force of custom amongst the masses, and 
the critical condition of the country at the time, resulted 
only in such compliance with the law as affected official 
acts and the business of the government in its various 
departments. 

In conformity with the provisions of the law of the 
2d of August, 1863, the measurements of land and water 
either for irrigation or power, are determined by engineers 
and surveyors according to the decimal, metric system, and 
the longitudinal road and surface measurements by the tables 
already mentioned of the 10th of November, 1862. This 
law requires also, that in making a valuation, the engineers 
and surveyors must indicate the agricultural character of 
the land, submit a plan or sketch of the land sold, and the 
longitude of the boundaries and the size of the angles must 
show, on each plan or sketch, the astronomical and magnetic 
position, indicating the inclination that may have been 
observed, and the date of observation. The plans or 
sketches must show the surface conditions of the lands ; and, 
in determining distance and making official measurements, 
the engineers and surveyors must indicate the changes to be 
made in the measurements in case the ground should not be 
level and for that reason, necessitate corrections. 

For liquids, the litre is the only measure. In the com- 



142 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

putation of ditch water the second is the unit of time, and 
for citv water, the minute: a surco is equal to six and one- 
half litres, per second of ditch measurement, and for city 
measurement, the paja is considered equal to 45 centimes. 
The engineers, surveyors and measurers of water determine 
in each case the data applicable to the city and country 
which are co-related with matters of inclination, distance 
from the point of measurement of the pressure level; all 
of which should be taken into account, the formulas used 
and the motives by which they were governed in their 
work being noted in each case. 

The measure of the power force is the kilogram etre, 
that is, a kilogram of power per second from a metre in 
height, 75 kilogrametres being equal to one horse power. 

On the 25th of April, 1881, the Secretary of Fomen- 
tation suggested to Congress a law intended to secure the 
definite adoption of the decimal system of measures. The 
measure having been discussed and passed, with some 
modifications, a law was enacted covering the subject on 
the 20th of December, 1882. By this it was determined 
that, from the first of January, 1884, the new system should 
go into effect exclusively in so far as official acts, commerce, 
the arts, business, and all other relations, both public and 
private, were concerned. Certain contradictions which were 
remarked in the formulas of this law, and difficulties expe- 
rienced in its enforcement, induced the President to submit 
another measure to Congress on the 3rd of December, 
1883, for the amendment of certain portions. The measure 
being approved without alteration, it was passed on the 
14th of the same month. According to this enactment 
the metric system should be used from the first of January, 
1886 ; but after July, 1886, the Secretary of Public Works 
should establish offices to verify weights and measures in 
the capital of the Republic, in the capital of the States, 
and territory of California, with a view to affording to all 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 143 

municipalities, and to individuals who may desire it, the 
benefit of their supervision, as well as for the verification 
of the weights that may be submitted to them. These 
offices were to remain established for five years, after which 
time the work of verification was to be performed in the 
offices known as " Fiel Contraste." 

The Department of Fomentation was authorized to enter 
into contract with individuals, for the establishment of 
factories for the manufacture and sale of the new weights 
and measures, these factories receiving exemption during 
ten years from every kind of tax or contribution, general 
or local, and the materials intended for manufacture being 
also exempt from the payment of duties or internal revenue 
taxes, subject to the restrictions imposed by the Executive. 

By an enactment of the 19th of December, 1888, the 
period fixed was extended to the first of July, 1891, and 
that fixed for the establishment of offices attending to the 
matter of verification, to January of the same year. 

By a new enactment of December the 17th, 1890, the 
duration of the first law was continued to the first of Jan- 
uary, 1893, for the purpose of giving effect to the metric 
system ; instructions being given at the same time, by this 
law, that the offices of verification or check system, which 
the Secretary of Fomentation might establish, should adopt 
the weights and measures of the decimal metric system 
tc the absolute exclusiou of the old method, the sale of 
its weight and measures as well as their manufacture and 
verification, to cease from the time that the same Ministry 
should, in its judgment, have acquired a sufficient number 
of weights and measures properly approved. 

CONTRACTS RELATIVE TO WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

In conformity with the contract of the 16th of October, 
1890, Mr. Alexander Casarin was empowered by the Secre- 



144 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

tary of Colonization and Commerce (Fomentation), to 
establish in the capital of the Eepublic, and in other parts 
of the country one or more factories for the manufacture 
of weights and measures, which, under the new system, 
should be subjected to the check system of the respective 
offices. The Department of Fomentation should furnish 
to the beneficiary the authorized models or molds, for the 
manufacture of weights and measures, designating the 
names required for each city, as well as for their respective^ 
sub-divisions. 

" The National Manufacturing Company of Weights and 
Measures," as the institution organized by Mr. Casarin is 
to be designated, is under obligation to keep its work shops 
open and to manufacture the official collections, as well as 
the greatest possible number of those destined for public 
use during the period fixed for the substitution of the pres- 
ent decimal metric system. 

The mechanism, utensils, fixtures and materials, necessary 
for the manufacture of weights and measures, will be free, 
during ten years, from import duties, whether State or 
Federal, subject to the restrictions imposed by the Depart- 
ment of Fomentation. During the same time the factories 
which the concessionaire may establish shall be exempt 
from all taxes and contributions general and local during 
the period of five years to date from the inception of the 
contract. At the same time the government obligates itself 
not to grant to any other person or company a similar con- 
cession covering the same privilege. 

The Government grants to the concessionaire a subsidy of 
$100,000, which, in accordance with the terms of the con- 
tract, shall be paid by fifty per cent of the check or verifi- 
cation taxes, or license imposed on the weights and measures 
which the concessionaire or company has to pay on the 
amount of production. 

The ten years mentioned in the contract having expired, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 145 

the Government can acquire title, at an appraised value, of 
the work shops established by the concessionaires or the 
company, and also ofthe materials therein contained. 

This contract was approved by Congress on the 3d of 
June, 1891. 

The Department of Colonization, Industry and Commerce 
entered into another contract with the same Mr. Casarin on 
the 13th of June, 1891, by virtue of which the latter will 
deliver to the former a collection of 10,000 plates in lots of 
nine, consisting of chromo-lithographs, measures, weights 
and geometrical instruments and drawings of the decimal 
metric system, in the following manner: plates representing 
longitudinal measurements with their geometrical descrip- 
tion, in five colors; surface measurements, measures of 
bulk and capacity for liquids, grain, with their geometric 
description, in three colors : utensils for weighing, with their 
description, in five colors: pieces of iron and bronze with 
their description, in three colors : coins of gold, silver and 
copper, in four colors ; and a general chart or plate, represent- 
ing the entire metric system, in five colors. The drawings 
must be of the natural size, and each plate will bear the 
proper nomenclature and explanatory notes of the system. 

The concessionaire obligates himself by this contract, 
to deliver every month or oftener, 18,000 plates, so that 
at the expiration of five months the collection of 10,000 
lots, of nine plates each, will have been delivered. 

THE INTERNATIONAL METEIC CONVENTION. 

An event of importance to Mexico, has been its partici- 
pation in the International Metric Convention of Paris in 
1875, the object of which was to secure the extensive 
adoption of the decimal metric system. 

On the 29th of August, 1889, the Mexican minister in 
Paris asked authority from the Department of Foreign 

10 



146 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Relations, for participation on the part of Mexico, in the 
international conference; but the exact obligations to be 
incurred by the Government because of such action, and 
the bases and respective regulations, not being known, an 
answer was returned on the 30th of September, of the 
same year, postponing action until the necessary informa- 
tion could be obtained. 

On the fourth of July, 1890, permission was accorded 
by the President allowing Mexico to take part in the inter- 
national league, and it was arranged that the Mexican 
minister in Paris should take the necessary steps to make 
known to the French government, that the Eepublic would 
take part in the convention, and would comply with what- 
ever conditions which might be imposed on it, as well as 
for its admission to the conference, as for acquiring the 
dies of the metre and kilogram of iriclied platinum. 

In the months of January and September of 1891, drafts 
to the amount of 29,048 francs were forwarded to the 
Mexican Charge d' Affairs in Paris, to pay for the die of the 
kilogram and to meet the share of expense for the inscrip- 
tion and for the expense incurred during the first year. On 
the 20th of October following, the sum of 22,335 francs 
was given to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, representing 
the share of the expense incurred by the Mexican Govern- 
ment for the entertainment of the " International Bureau 
of Weights and Measures ; " the participation of the Mexican 
Eepublic in the Paris convention of May 20th, 1875, being 
thus affirmed. 

The die of the kilogram which arrived safely in Mexico 
as appears from the proceedings of April the 4th, 1891, was 
designated by the number 21; it was taken from the office 
of the International Railroad together with all its parts 
and certificates of its origin, on the 13th of November of 
the same year, alter the delivery to the Minister of Foreign 
Relations of the sum of 3,305 francs. The die of the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 147 

kilogram and accompanying documents were brought to 
Mexico by Captain Angel Ortiz Monasterio, in the corvette 
" Escuela General Zaragoza " and were received in the 
Department of Fomentation through the mediation of the 
Department of Foreign Relations, on the 20th of January, 
1892. On the 27th of November, 1891, the sum of 2,878 
francs was paid, this being Mexico's share of the expense 
of the International Convention of the year 1891; and on 
the 29th of March, 1892, the sum of 2,460 francs, its share 
for this year, was also paid. 

On the 30th of November, 1891, the following nations 
were represented in the International Metric Convention: 
Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, The Argentine 
Eepublic, Denmark, United States of America, France, 
Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Rou- 
mania, Servia, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and 
Venezuela. 

MEXICAN NATIONAL CURRENCY. 

VIII. In order to substitute a National Currency for the 
old coin of the Spanish Government, the Mexican Congress, 
two years after the Declaration of Independence, by decree 
of the 1st of August, 1823, ordered the making of new 
dies for the coining of said money. 

All coins whether of silver, gold, or copper, were to 
bear the same obverse, that is, the escutcheon of the nation 
was to be stamped upon it, and around its border the in- 
scription " Republic of Mexico." 

All silver coins were to bear on their reverse a cap with 
the word Liberty stamped diagonally across it and from 
whose center rays of light shot forth, besides which should 
be expressed the value, the year and place of mintage, 
together with their ley * and the initials of the assayers. 

* The value of pure metal. 



148 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

On the reverse of all gold coins, a hand was to be 
stamped holding a rod with the Liberty cap on its point, 
the whole resting upon a representation of an open Code 
Book, with the inscription "Liberty in the Law" around 
it, as also the same marks and signs, that appear on the 
silver coins, indicating their value, place and year of mint- 
age, etc^ 

On the reverse of copper coins was to appear two palms 
forming a fringe, in the center of which their respective 
value was indicated, and also the year and place of mintage 
was to be stamped upon it. 

The alloy in the silver and gold coins was to remain 
the same as established by the Spanish Government forty 
years before, and which regulations are still in force. 

By the law of March 15th, 1857, the metric-decimal 
system (as was previously mentioned page 140 referring 
to weights and measures) was first established in Mexico, 
and the "peseta" or shilling was declared to be the 
monetary unit ; that, however, was changed by the law of 
March 15th, 1861, which made the dollar ($1.00) the unit 
for silver coins and for gold that of the denomination of 
ten dollars ($10,00). 

This same lawalso decreed that the ten dollar ($10.00) gold 
pieces should be known by the name of Hidalgos, those of 
twenty dollars ($20.00) as double Hidalgos and those of 
five dollars ($5.00) two dollars and a half ($2.50) and one 
dollar ($1.00) as half, quarter, and tenth Hidalgo respect- 
ively, but this disposition up to the present date, has never 
been put into effect. 

In conformity with the law of November 28th, 1867, 
called the " Curio de la Balanza " Scales die the silver dollar, 
containing the amount of alloy and the weight prescribed 
by the aforementioned law of 1823, is the monetary unit 
of the Kepublic, and is subdivided, according to the metric- 
decimal system as follows: two coins of the value of 50 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 1.49 

cs. each, four of 25 cs., ten of 10 cs., and twenty of 5 
cs., the penny or 1 cs., piece must be made of copper or 
some alloy in which copper predominates. 

The value of the various gold coins is twenty dollars 
($20.00), ten dollars ($10,00), five dollars ($5.00), two 
dollars and a half ($2.50) and a dollar ($1.00) respectively. 

The ley* of all silver coins is expressed in decimal figures, 
0,902- 1 Vo I o, (10 dineros 20 grains) and that of gold coins, 
by 875, or 21 carats. 

The weights of the different silver coins are as follows: 
the dollar ($1.00) 27 grammes 73 milligrammes, the 50 cs. 
piece, 13 grammes 536 milligrammes, the quarter or 25 cs. 
piece, 6 grammes 768 milligrammes, the 10 cs. piece, 2 
grammes 707 milligrammes, and the 5 cs. piece, 1 gramme 
653 milligrammes. 

The weight of the various gold coins is as follows: the 
$20.00 piece, 33 grammes 841 milligrammes, the $10.00 
piece, 16 grammes 920 milligrammes, the $5.00 piece, 8 
grammes 460 milligrammes, the $2.50 piece, 4 grammes 
230 milligrammes, and the one [dollar piece, 1 gramme 
692 milligrammes. 

The weight of the copper penny or one cent piece is 8 
grammes. 

The diameter of the silver dollar is 37 millimetres and 
that of its subdivisions is as follows: The 50 cs. piece, 30 
millimetres, the 25 cs. piece, 25 millimetres, the 10 cs. 
piece, 17 millimetres. 

The diameter of the various gold coins is as follows : the 
$20.00 piece, 34 millimetres, the $10.00 piece, 27 millime- 
tres, the $5.00 piece, 22 millimetres, the $2.50 piece, 18 
millimetres and the $1.00 piece, 15 millimetres. 

The difference allowed for precious metals, either in 
excess, or deficiency in ley, must not exceed 0,003 in silver 



* See note, page 147. 



150 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

coins, the deficiency in ley, however, is only allowed in 
special cases, and not in the general mintage of coins. 

The law of 1867, whose object was to reform the 
national currency, uniformly regulating its subdivisions, 
in view of the fact that the simultaneous use of the coins 
of the metric-decimal and those of the imperial, or old 
system, was prejudicial to the public interest, also requested 
engravers, whether foreign or native, to send in designs 
for improving and perfecting the model in force, and 
named the 15th of September, 1868, as the date on w T hich 
the so-called imperial coins were to be retired from circu- 
lation, therefore it came to pass that in accordance with 
this law (which is still in force) the coinage of moneys of 
the Scales die was ordered, but this did not meet with suc- 
cess, not only on account of their faulty design, but also 
from the fact that they were not accepted in Asia as 
current coin. 

This caused Congress to issue the decree of May 29th, 
1873, which ordered the re-establishment of the die used 
prior the 28th of November, 1867, but that all the other 
dispositions relating to the weights, fractioning, etc., made 
by the law of November, 1867, were to remain in force. 

A decree of Congress issued on the 16th of December, 
1881, provided for the coinage of copper coins of the 
denomination of one, two, and five cents, to consist of a 
mixture containing from 75 to 80 per cent of copper and 20 
to 25 per cent of nickel, also determining the weights and 
diameters of the same, at the same time stopping the coin- 
age in the mints of silver 5 cents pieces, and copper pennies 
or cent pieces ; it also decreed two years later, the retire- 
ment from circulation of copper coins of 1, I-5-, and 3 cents. 

The total issue of this new coin was restricted to four 
millions dollars and then the Executive was authorized to 
proceed with its coinage, and to issue it according to the 
wants of the public. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 151 

The Government contracted for said coinage and this 
fractional currency was soon introduced ; shortly after- 
wards, however, speculators monopolized large quantities 
of nickel, which was paid into the public offices, especially 
in the capital and coast custom-houses, in large quantities; 
great losses resulted therefrom, as it was difficult to put it in 
circulation again, and as the recounting of it involved a loss 
of time, it was received in bulk, and by weight, which 
owing to the difference in weight of the respective coins, 
led to dishonesty and fraud. 

About the middle of the year 1883 nickel commenced t© 
suffer a depreciation in value, ranging from 4 to 50 per 
cent, which induced merchants to set different prices on 
their goods, acccordingas they were paid in silver or nickel. 

The law of December 12th, 1883, proclaimed to prevent 
this evil, decreed the forced circulation of the nickel coins 
to the amount of 20 cents in every payment, and that all 
Federal offices should not, in any transaction, payout more 
than 5 per cent of it, also that all Federal treasury offices 
should receive it without limit up to the last day of the 
year 1883, and during the following year, from January 
1st to February 29th, to the extent of 50 per cent, from 
March 1st to April 30th of 30 per cent, from May 1st to 
June 30th of 20 percent, and July 1st, and thereafter to the 
extent of 10 per cent in all payments of moneys. 

It also ordered that all Federal offices should withhold 
from circulation the nickel 5 cent piece not yet issued and 
retain all those that should be paid in. 

By Circular of the Department of Interior, issued some 
days earlier (on the 2nd December, 1883), heavy fines, or 
imprisonment was to be imposed on all persons who should 
refuse to receive the new coin, or tried to embarrass, or 
impede, its circulation, as also on all merchants who refused 
to receive it, or set higher prices on their goods in the 
event of being paid in nickel, while on the other hand 



152 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the City Council, and the Treasury Department, took the 
necessary steps to facilitate merchants and importers, in the 
purchase at reasonable rates payable in nickel, of all goods 
of chief necessity, to be sold at retail, and offices were 
also opened in the public markets where said coin was 
exchanged for silver at par. 

By the decree of January 9th, 1884, the emission of 
nickel certificates for the amounts of $10.00, $50.00, 
$100.00 and $500.00 was authorized ; these were to be de- 
posited in the National Bank, which was to sell them at par 
for silver coins, and from the proceeds of said sales, 50 
per cent was to be applied to the exchange, also at par, of 
silver for nickel coins deposited by private individuals, 
with said bank, for that purpose. • 

This decree, as also that of the 16th of the same month 
and year assigned for the redemption of said certificates, 
15 per cent of the receipts of the custom houses at Vera- 
cruz, Guaymas, La Paz, Matamoros, Mazatlan, Laredo, 
Salina Cruz, Paso del Norte, Tonala, Campeche, Frontera, 
Progreso, Tampico, Tuxpan, Acapulco, and San Bias, 
from February to June and in July and thereafter 10 per 
cent of the same. 

In view of the lack of fractional coin, and to further the 
carrying out of the above dispositions, the Department of 
Fomentation arranged, with the lessees of the mint for the 
coinage, m advance, of double the amount of 5 cent and 
10 cent pieces specified in the respective contracts. 

By decree of April 7th, 1884, nickel coin was not 
accepted at the custom-houses in payment of duties, but it 
ordered that what remained of it in circulation should be 
received in all the other public offices according to the pro- 
visions of the law of December 12th, 1883. 

Finally the decree of Congress of May 10th, 1886, 
revoked that of December 16th, 1881, as also all the dis- 
positions relating thereto made later, and re-established 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 153 

the monetary law of November 27th, 1807, and ordered the 
issue of nickel coins. By same decree the executive was 
authorized to order the issue of $200,000.00 in copper and 
silver coins of denomination of 1 and 5 cents respectively, 
the same to have a forced circulation to the extent of 25 
cents in every payment; the issue of the 5 cent coins was 
to be effected according to the demands of the retail trader. 

The law of June 4, 1888, ordered that all silver coins of 
the value 121 C s., 6i cs., 3 cs., all coins that had become 
defaced by use and all copper moneys of the old issue, should 
be called in, for the purpose of being recoined; also that on 
June 30th of the following year the legal circulation of said 
coins should cease, and that prices of goods, wages, etc., 
should be expressed in decimal figures. 

By the law of June 1, 1889, the date set by the preced- 
ing one was extended to June 30, 1890, and further extended 
to April, 1891, by that of June 10, 1890. 

Eegulations issued on November 30, 1889, ordered that 
all receiving offices in the Republic whether State or Federal 
should set apart for redemption all defaced 50 cs. and 25 cs. 
pieces, those known as " provisionals " also all 12|- and 6 
cs. in silver and copper 3 and li'cs. pieces, which coins 
should be forwarded to the respective agencies of the 
National Bank, to be exchanged for decimal currency. 

All salaries, wages, prices of goods, freights, etc., were 
to be fixed and paid in said currency, under penalty of a 
fine of $25.00 for thefirst offense and $50.00 in each case 
thereafter. All authorities and notaries public who dispatch 
documents expressing values were to use the term, "dol- 
lar" and its decimal subdivisions, not allowing even for 
the purpose of being more explicit, the mention of coins 
of the old style, under a penalty of a fine of from $5.00 to 
$100.00; these regulations also ordered the forward accept- 
ance of copper coins to the amount of 25 cs, in each pay- 
ment. 



154 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

By decree of May 31st, 1889, the circulation of all coins 
that had, by being filed, bored through or by any cause 
other than usage, lost the legal weight, was prohibited. 

On December 9th, 1890, the Department of Fomenta- 
tion presented to Congress a project embracing important 
modifications to the monetary law. It proposed that coins 
should continue to be the same type as they were, but that 
the designs be improved, and that the references to the 
value of the coin and the ley of the metal be changed so as 
to read " one dollar " instead of " 8 reales " and that the 
ley be expressed in decimal fractions, in place of " Dine- 
ros and Granos " and the edge to be milled instead of 
being as it was ; all fractional coins should be stamped as the 
unit, and bear such distinctive signs as might be found 
necessary. 

Gold coins on their obverse like silver ones, were to bear 
the escutcheon of the nation, and on their reverse the bust 
of Hidalgo, with their respective inscriptions. The copper 
coins were to remain unchanged. 

In this project the creation of a new silver coin was sug- 
gested of the denomination of 20 cents, weighing 5 
grammes 415 milligrammes and the suspension of the coin- 
age of the 25 cent piece ; subdivisions of the dollar would 
thereby be 20 cs., 10 cs. and 5 cs. With reference to gold 
coins, it was proposed to raise the ley from 0.875 to 0.900 
that the legal proportion between gold and silver be from 
1 to 15^- and that the coins be of the denominations of 
$5.00, $10.00 and $20.00, the coinage of $1.00 and $2.50 
pieces being abolished. The project also established the 
weight and diameter of gold and silver coins, as the differ- 
ence allowed in their ley, and provided likewise in regard 
to the copper coins. 

The above project is still pending before Congress. 

In order that all coinage should be uniform in the mints 
of the Republic the Department of Fomentation contracted 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 155 

on the 25th of August, 1886, with Mr. Fernando Sayago 
for the establishment in the mint of the city of Mexico of 
a " Central Department of Engraving " by virtue of which 
contract Mr. Sayago obligated himself to deliver properly 
packed and to the utter satisfaction of the interventor 
appointed by the government, such dies made to strictly 
conform with the type adopted by law as might be applied 
for by the respective sub-mints. The lessees of said mints 
were to make their requisitions to the Department of Fo- 
mentation, which through its interventor would cause them 
to be filled ; the new dies being changed on receipt of the 
old ones. Each mint pays $50.00 for a pair of dies, one 
obverse and one reverse, or two obverses and two reverses 
constituting a pair. 

EXHIBITIONS. 

IX. The Government of the Republic has seen the im- 
portance of exhibitions in making known the riches of 
every kind which the country contains and the greater part 
of which was unknown to the civilized world. It also saw 
their importance in fostering and stimulating the agricul- 
tural and mining industries of Mexico and in bringing to 
perfection these' branches of human activity. It is for this 
reason that it has always been disposed to aid as far as lay 
in its power either by subventions or the granting of im- 
munity from taxes or by any other means, these labor com- 
petitions whether they have taken place in the Republic or 
in foreign countries. In addition to being represented at 
the exhibitions of Paris, Venice, St. Louis, Matansas 
and Buenos Ayres it has also exhibited in the following 
abroad : 

Exhibition of Philadelphia. In order to celebrate the 
hundredth anniversary of the independence of the United 
States of America the Congress of that nation decreed an 



156 . THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

International Exhibition of arts, manufactures, and agri- 
cultural and mining products. It was held in the city of 
Philadelphia in the year 1876. 

The President, U. S. Grant, issued on the 3d of July, 
1873, the proclamation referring to it, and in virtue of a 
resolution approved of by the Congress on the 5th of July 
of the same year, an invitation was sent to every country 
on the globe. 

The Mexican Minister at Washington received from the 
Secretary of State the circular relating to the 5th of July 
and bearing the date of the 5th of August following, and 
the Minister of the United States in Mexico directed a note 
to the Foreign Secretaryship inviting, in the name of his 
country's Government, the Government and people of 
Mexico to take part in the exhibition which would be held 
from the 19th of April till the 19th of. October, 1876. 

On the following day an answer was given cordially 
accepting the invitation of the North American Government 
and immediately the Interior Secretaryship began to dictate 
the means necessary to organize the preliminary works. In 
1874 the Exhibition Committee was appointed under the 
chairmanship of Sr. Lie Manuel Romero Eubio, and also 
the commission which was to represent, Mexico in the 
celebration ; convenient publications were also written 
in order to show the desire that existed to make known 
among foreign nations the natural and industrial resources 
of which Mexico is possessed, and regulations were made to 
organize the works in the Republic. 

Hitherto Mexico had not figured on a grand scale in the 
exhibitions of other countries. She had to contend at the 
very beginning with certain difficulties inasmuch as she had 
to calculate the expenses which had to be incurred in order 
that the exhibits of Mexicans who lived in the various States 
of the Republic might be brought to the capital, and this 
had to be done by difficult roads and with heavy transport 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



157 



expenses and from thence they had to be exported to their 
destination. 

The result, however, of the Mexican Exhibition in Phila- 
delphia was sufficiently satisfactory. 

In the Mining and Metallurgical Department samples were 
exhibited of native sulphur of bromirite and a sample of a 
meteoric stone weighing 4,000 lbs; collections of lead and 
silver ores, samples of silver producing galena, geological 
collections of Mexican onyx and a mass of coppered silver, 
in the manufacture department were displayed; salts of 
sodium, essences, wax candles, indigo, porcelain, furniture 
of Austrian imitation and form, gloves, embroidery, artifi- 
cial flowers, ixtle (paper) bark, and wax-works. 

Among education and science works were exhibited scien- 
tific books on surveying, topography and calculus, works 
on Mexican fossils, philology and the public instruction of 
Mexico, collections of maps, etc. Among the art exhibits 
were oil paintings and photographic portraits. 

In the agricultural department were seen collections of 
woods, of corns, grass, coffee, cultivated tobaccos, vanilla, 
vegetable wax, sugars, chocolate, liquors, Parras wines, 
henequen fabrics and cords, maguey fibers, carmine and 
cochineal. In horticulture, various herbs and a collection 
of botanical maps, etc. 

The Mexican exhibitors obtained in the exhibition 73 
diplomas and 47 medals, whilst the Government of Mexico 
received an extraordinary diploma. 

The distribution of prizes was performed by the Presi- 
dent of the Eepublic in the National Theater on the 22d of 
July, 1877. 

The Exhibition of JSfeiu Orleans. The Centenary Uni- 
versal Industrial and Cotton Exhibition of the city of New 
Orleans was proclaimed on the 10th of September, 1883, 
by the President, M. Chester A. Arthur by virtue of a 
law of the Congress dated the 10th of February of the 



158 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

same year, and was inaugurated on the 10th of December, 
1884. Its object was to celebrate the centenary of the first 
remittance of cotton as an article of commerce sent by the 
United States to Europe in 1784 ; but the cotton exhibition 
was thrown open to the exhibits of cotton in all its condi- 
tions of cultivation and manufacture and to all the arts, 
manufactures, mining and agricultural products of the 
world. 

In pursuance of a decree of the Congress an invitation 
dated the 31st of October, 1883, was sent to the Mexican 
Government through the United States minister at Mexico 
and in the name of the North American Union asking Mexico 
to send representatives and take part in the said exhibition. 

After accepting this invitation on the 7th of December 
following the Mexican Government appointed General 
Porlirio Diaz as general commissioner in the Kepublic to 
take charge of the organization of the preparatory works 
for Mexico's participation in the exhibition. A directing 
committee of the general commission was constituted and 
the necessary special commissions were appointed. 

According to the plan adopted by the commission the 
participation of Mexico was to be secured by the co-opera- 
tion of the superiors of the Federation, by that of the 
States and of the general public. In this way a complete 
picture would be shown of the natural resources of the 
country, its scientific, industrial, artistic and commercial 
progress; whilst the specialty in which each State excelled 
in any of these branches would be clearly marked as well as 
the productions of the special industries established at dif- 
ferent places in the Republic. 

Mexico responded in a liberal manner to the invitation 
sent to her by the United States Government and got ready, 
with great expense, her best natural, industrial and artistic 
products and thus her exhibition surpassed the hopes of her 
own people and of strangers. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 159 

The Mexican train which brought the -first remittance of 
exhibits sent by Mexico to the Universal Competition ar- 
rived at New Orleans on the 27th of November at midday 
and was saluted in its transit with demonstrations of wel- 
come by the American people. Among the buildings of 
the exhibition, Mexico occupied an area of 40,000 square 
feet and here were exhibited the agricultural products of 
every climate, the finest fibers, precious woods, marbles, 
tiles or other building materials, essence oils, liquors, wines, 
preserves, sweets, fine sugars, coffee and cocoa of the high- 
est quality, tanned skins which were taken for cloth, sarapes 
and the finest mufflers, cotton cloths, works in silver and in 
wax, carriages and trappings exquisitely made, furniture, 
collections of books, maps, atlases, engravings and photo- 
graphs. 

In the fine art galleries were to be seen sixty oil paint- 
ings, collections of amulets and medals, marble busts, etc., 
which were all objects of admiration. In the ladies* 
special section, the laces, point laces, embroidery, open 
work, inlaid work and artificial flowers roused the interest 
of merchants engaged in these branches. 

In the horticultural gallery were shown more than 900 
specimens of living plants, 700 species of textile plants 
and 400 orchids of rare forms, colors and perfumes; singing 
birds of all kinds, parrots and pheasants. 

The octagonal pavilion constructed for the Government 
of iron and glass and in the Arabian style contained samples 
from the Mexican mines of gold, silver, copper, iron and 
other metals of unrivaled riches and of a very notable 
scientific classification. 

The music of the 8th Regiment of the Mexican Army 
under the direction of Captaiu Encarnacion Payen was 
listened to with enthusiasm and admiration by the visitors 
to the exhibition. 

The skilled musicians of the band, equally with Sr. Payen 



160 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

were the object of frequent ovations, applause and honor- 
able distinctions. 

The 29th of May, 1885, was the day dedicated to Mexico 
in the exhibition by the authorities of Louisiana and of 
the city of New Orleans, the directory committee of the 
exhibition, the commissioners of the United States and the 
people. 

The festival which was organized had for its object to show 
the high appreciation the above mentioned bodies and 
people had for the Mexican exhibition and for the liberal 
and generous way in which the Government and Mexican 
people had contributed to its success. 

Mr. Burke, General Director of the exhibition, expressed 
himself in eloquent and very honorable terms about the 
high state of advancement attained by Mexico, and her 
future prosperity. 

The solemn distribution of the prizes gained by Mexico 
at this exhibition was performed by the President of the 
Republic on the 5th of May, 1887. At the same time 
were distributed the prizes gained by the Mexican exhibit- 
ors in the Continental Exhibition of Buenos Ayres. 

The prizes won by Mexico distributed among the various 
States, Federal District and Territories, are as follows: — 

Aguascalientes, 4 prizes and 3 honorable mentions; 
Oampecke, 3 prizes and 4 honorable mentions; Coahuila, 
9 prizes and 3 honorable mentions ; Colima, 6 prizes and 
9 honorable mentions; Chiapas, 5 prizes and 10 hon- 
orable mentions ; Chihuahua, 6 prizes and 1 honorable 
mention ; Federal District, 67 prizes, 27 honorable men- 
tions, 17 diplomas and 1 certificate of merit; Durango, 12 
prizes and 5 honorable mentions ; Guanajuato, 3 prizes 
and 3 honorable mentions; Guerrero, 1 honorable men- 
tion; Hidalgo, 8 prizes and 3 mentions; Jalisco, 16 prizes 
and 6 honorable mentions; Mexico, 13 prizes and 6 men- 
tions ; Michoacan, 12 prizes, 9 mentions, and 1 diploma ;, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 161 

Morelos, 5 prizes and 5 mentions; Nuevo Leon, 4 prizes 
and 1 honorable mention; Oaxaca, 13 prizes and 21 hon- 
orable mentions; Puebla, 12 prizes and 10 honorable 
mentions; Querelaro, 4 prizes and 4 mentions; San Luis 
Potosi, 15 prizes and 10 mentions ; iSonora, 10 prizes and 
9 mentions ; Tabasco, 4 prizes and 3 mentions ; Tamaulipas, 
2 mentions ; Tlaxcala, 3 prizes and 1 honorable mention ; 
Veracruz, Grand Diploma of honor, 23 prizes, 13 hon- 
orable mentions, 2 diplomas and 1 certificate of merit; 
Yucatan, 8 prizes, 6 honorable mentions and 1 diploma; 
Zacalecas, 7 prizes and 3 honorable mentions; Lower 
California, 6 prizes ; Tepic, 2 prizes and 3 honorable 
mentions. Altogether there were: 1 Grand Diploma of 
honor, 282 prizes, 181 honorable mentions, 36 diplomas, 
and 2 certificates of merit. Total, 502. 

Paris Exhibition. The Minister of the French Eepublic 
in a note dated the 15th of April, 1887, in the name of his 
Government invited the Government of Mexico to contrib- 
ute its products to the Universal Exhibition which would 
be inaugurated in Paris on the 5th of May, 1889. The 
Government wishing to know beforehand the exhibits which 
its different States and Federal Territories would be able 
to contribute, delayed its answer till the 27th of December, 
1887, when it accepted the invitation. 

The organizing commission of the Mexican exhibition in 
Paris actively began its labors by appointing commissions 
to draw up and publish special regulations, to form an 
estimate of the probable expenses of the exhibition. It 
also sent appeals to the railway and ship companies 
and to the Governors of the different States asking their 
definite co-operation in securing the objects of the commis- 
sion. 

The co-operation of the nation was obtained by means 
of the combined action of the government officials, com- 
prising the Secretaryships of State, and the State and 

n 



162 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Federal District Governors, and the leading politicians of 
the territories and the private exhibitors. 

The direction of the works was placed under charge of 
the Interior Secretaryship, whence invitations were sent to 
the Governors and leading politicians of the territories 
asking them to contribute to the success of the Mexican 
exhibition and to organize the necessary works in their 
respective localities. Sr. M. Diaz Mimiaga was appointed 
Delegate of the Government in Paris, and special commis- 
sions were formed in conformity with the new groups 
established by the French regulations. The Interior Secre- 
taryship resolved that a commission of architects should 
take in hand the project of the building and adopt the 
style of some of the old monuments of the country. 

The space occupied by Mexico in the Exhibition was 
about 2,100 square metres in front of the Fine Art Pavilion 
and on the right side of the Eiffel Tower. 

Mexico exhibited oil paintings, sculptures and medal 
engravings, drawings and models of architecture, works on 
education, and primary, secondary, higher and technical 
teaching, books, stationery binding, art materials, photo- 
graphs and photographic apparatus, musical instruments, 
charts and Geographical and Cosmographical instruments, 
Topography and Statistics, ordinary and elegant garniture, 
works of tapestry and decoration, wax works, artistic 
bronzes, works of art in castings and in embossed metals, 
morocco-leather works, baskets and brushes, yarn and 
cotton, linen, hemp, smooth and carded wool fabrics, silks 
and silk fabrics, lace, tulles, embroidery and laces, bonnets 
and linen, wearing apparel of both sexes, jewelry, 
portable arms, objects for journey and country use, toys, 
the products of mining works, of metallurgy, products of 
explorations and forest industries, products of hunting, 
products of fishing, and fishing tackle and netting, 
unalimentary agricultural produce, chemical and drug 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 163 

products, leather and hides, materials and processes of 
mining works and metallurgy, materials and processes of 
agricultural manufactures and food industries, mechanical 
machines and apparatus, tools, carriages and wagons, 
harness, railway materials, material and processes of civil 
engineering, of public works, and architecture, hygiene 
and public sanitary arrangements, material and processes 
of the military art, cereals, farinaceous products, fatty 
substances, goods, milks, meats and fishes, vegetables and 
fruits, sugars and confectionery, chocolates, sweets, 
carpentry, liquors, fermented drinks, beer, agricultural 
statistics, method and material for agricultural teaching, 
materials and processes of rural and forest works, useful 
and noxious insects, flowers and ornamental plants. 

The Mexican exhibitors in this International Competition 
won 19 Grand Prizes, 96 gold medals, 233 silver ones, 333 
bronze and 321 honorable mentions. Total, 1,002 prizes. 
There were also awarded to them 57 medals and com- 
memorative diplomas and three unforeseen prizes granted 
as rewards by the International Judges. 

NATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 

X. Several exhibitions have been held in the various 
States of the Republic and special ones of horticulture in 
some of the towns of the Federal District. All have been 
remarkable, both for the number of exhibitors and for the 
variety and good quality of the objects shown. In these 
exhibitions the General Government has co-operated by 
sending certain sums of money as subventions. 

The chief national exhibitions held were the following : — 

General Exhibition of the Industry of Mexico. This was 

held in the capital of the Eepublic between the 1st and the 

5th of November, 1853. At this time D. Joaquin Velazquez 

de Leon was Secretary of Fomentation, and General D. 



164 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 

Antonio L6pez de Santa Ana, President of the Eepublic. 
The objects exhibited were divided into four classes: First. 
Plants, flowers, fruits and vegetables. Second. Agricul- 
tural products. Third. Artistic industry, and Fourth, 
factory industries. Two halls were made for the objects 
to be exhibited, one in the center of Constitution Square, 
which was used for the prizes and for the exhibition of 
first-class articles, and the other in the passages of the 
University where all the other industrial articles were dis- 
played. The number of exhibits was about 163. 

The National Exhibition of Mexico of the year 1875 
was held in a beautiful palace expressly built in the 
Alameda of the capital of the Eepublic. The States that 
•chiefly attracted attention by their products were Campeche, 
Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, 
Yucatan, Zacatecas and the Federal District. The exhib- 
itors were granted 37 gold medals, 96 silver ones, 80 of 
bronze and 92 honorable mentions. Many of the exhibits 
were sent to the International Exhibition of Philadelphia 
in 1876. 

The Merida Exhibition was celebrated in the May of 
1879. The six halls which the building contained were 
divided into departments, one of which was devoted to 
exhibits sent from Mexico and the rest were assigned to 
each of the political divisions of the State, Hunucma, Temax, 
Espita, Merida, Aconceh, Motul, Maxanu, Ticul, Valladolid, 
Sotuta, Fizinim, Izamal, Tiskokob and Tekar. The number 
of exhibitors was about 509 and the exhibits about 1,038. 
The prizes were silver and bronze medals and honorable 
mentions. Of the first, 6 were granted to exhibitors, of 
the second 10 whilst there were 56 honorable mentions. 

The Puebla Exhibition. The second exhibition of the 
Puebla Society of Artisans was held in the town of Puebla 
in the month of April, 1880. The ordinary prizes awarded 
by the qualifying judges were 192. First class, consisting 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 165 

of gilt medals, 251, second class, which were silvered medals, 
145, third class, which were bronze medals, and 167 honor- 
able mentions. In addition to these prizes won by exhibit- 
ors, other extraordinary and special ones were awarded to 
certain persons, companies and corporations which had 
most distinguished themselves in advancing the sciences, 
arts and industries of Mexico and likewise to the Governor 
who had given the greatest impulse to material improve- 
ments and public instruction. The Government gave the 
exhibition a subvention of $2,000. 

The Toluca Exhibition. By a decree of the 14th of 
October, 1882, the Congress of the State of Mexico author- 
ized the Governor to convoke an exhibition of the native 
products, of mining, agriculture, industry, sciences and fine 
arts which should be held in the town of Toluca. It also 
empowered him to spend money to the amount of 4,000 
dollars of the general funds of the State and to adopt means 
to raise the necessary money for the said exhibition. The 
building was constructed inside what was formerly called 
the market and was 175 metres long by twenty-three broad. 
The cost of it came to more than twenty thousand dollars. 
The solemn opening of the exhibition, the first that was 
ever held in the State of Mexico, took place on the 2d of 
April, 1883. 

Monterrey Industrial Exhibition. Two exhibitions have 
now been held in the capital of Nuevo Leon; one in the 
September of 1880 and the other in the same month of the 
year 1888. Both were initiated by the society called " The 
Grand Circle of Workmen of Monterrey " which asked and 
obtained from the Congress of the State a subvention of 
two thousand dollars in order to bring each of them to a 
successful issue. 

The latter of these exhibitions was held in the building 
of the society situated in the square of the Cinco de Mayo. 
Two hundred and fifteen exhibitors took part in it and they 



166 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

were awarded 15 gold medals, 80 second class, 48 third 
class and 22 honorable mentions. A great part of the 
objects shown in it were sent to the fair and international 
exhibition of San Antonio (Texas) which took place in the 
November of 1888, and where they obtained a brilliant suc- 
cess. 

The exhibitors were granted 7 gold and 18 silver 
medals, 40 diplomas, and a diploma and gold medal which 
the Directory Committee presented to the Governor on ac- 
count of the important part which the workmen and 
factory hands of the State took in the said exhibition. 

Queretaro Exhibition was decreed on the 8th of December, 
1880, by the Congress of the State, and was opened on the 
30th of April, 1882, by General Pacheco, Secretary of Fo- 
mentation. Eight extensive halls contained in the industrial 
palace, and in their center were displayed huge cases con- 
taining the 5,000 exhibits of 1,400 exhibitors. The exhibi- 
tion was closed on the 20th of August, 1882, after 40,000 
visitors had passed through the gates. The General Gov- 
ernment gave the exhibition a subvention of $2,000 whilst 
the government of the State gave 4,000 ; 355 first class 
prizes, 225 second, 128 third and 184 honorable mentions 
were awarded. A part was taken in this exhibition also 
by the towns of Mexico, Puebla, Orizaba, Guanajuato, Sala- 
manca, Irapuato, Allende, Celaya, Salvatierra, Guadalupe, 
Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Durango, Tepic, Monterrey and 
others. 

The Guadalajara Exhibition. A committee of private 
individuals presided over by the Governor of the State, Sr. 
General Ramon Corona, discussed the question of holding 
an exhibition which would make known to visitors to the 
city of Guadalajara the progress and resources of the 
State. The place chosen for the exhibition was known by 
the name of Alhondiga or the old school of arts. This 
was properly repaired and on the 15th of May, 1888, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 167 

the opening took place on the inauguration clay of the 
Guadalajara railway. The Secretary of Fomentation gave 
$1,000 to the exhibition. 

Articles Awarded Prizes. 

in the various exhibitions. 

The chief articles which have been awarded prizes in the 
national exhibitions are the following: 

Cereals. Cascabillo coffee of Colima, wheat, beans, rice, 
husks, and Indian corn. Tubercules. A specimen of beet- 
root, red variety. Medicinal plants. A collection of 
plants, vanilla, sarsaparilla, nopal gum, chaca grass, chan 
mucilage seed. Plants and substances used in the industries. 
Sugar canes, Aztectea, higuerilla (castor bean), aud 
Yucatan bark, nuts and saffron. Dried fruits and preserves. 
A collection of preserved fruits, peppers. Textile plants. 
Henequen, cotton, ixtle and agave. Coloring plants and 
their products. Indigo, saffron, orchella, weed, logwood, 
achiote. Park, seeds, etc., used as drugs. All classes of 
barks and seeds. Building timber. A collection of tim- 
bers remarkable for their variety and richness, mahogany, 
tampeceran, rose-wood, tepehuaje and orange wood attract- 
ing special attention. Tobaccos, cigars and cigarettes. 
Every class made. Gums, resins, etc. White India rubber. 
Vegetable wax, vegetable oils. Olive oil, higuerilla and 
cocoa-oil. Flours. Wheat flour, yuca starch, and sago. 
Wines and liquors. Sherry, parras wines, tequila, Rhine, 
grape brandy, pulque, tovola, maguey brandy, quince wine, 
gin and various liquors. Sugar. Refined and yellow sugar. 
Cotton fabrics. Marronesas, cloaks, saile de menaje, 
coverlets, prints, smooth oil-cloth, spun fabrics, driles, 
poplins, mufflers, vests and drawers, carpets, table-cloths, 
cloth and cashmeres. Silks. Mascadas, bufandas and 
other woven silks; spun silks, worked with skeins and 



168 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

dyed. Hemipterous and homopterous insects. Cactus or 
nopal cochineal, originaiy of Mexico and carmine. 
lortoise shell. Tortoise shell and art works of same. 
Tanned and prepared skins. Kid skins for gloves, grain 
shagreen, zuela, varnished skins, English imitation 
skins, stamped chive gamuzas, lamb gamuzas, dressed 
sheep skins, sashes, flowers on leather and grenetine. 
Wax. Beeswax. Fats. Varnish of the insect called kum 
of Yucatan, candles. Prepared wool. Cashmeres and other 
woolen fabrics. Mining. Calcareous formations, stalac- 
tites (tecali), collections of rocks and fossils, sulphur, 
industrial metallurgical collection, samples of Veracruz 
coal, coal and anthracite of Tecamatlan in the State of 
Puebla, collection of the mercury mines of the Sierra, 
Qneretaro, cast and forged iron, marbles, mineralogical 
collection of Zacoalpam, black lead and tequesquite from 
the Salada works in the State of Zacatecas. Science and 
art instruments. Perfected plough, agrometer, apparatus 
for collecting sulphureous gas, hot air machine, models of 
locomovils, locomotives and tender, various telegraphic 
and agricultural instruments. Enamels. Different enam- 
els, application of enamel to photography, and the invention 
of the application of chromo-lithography or porcelain deco- 
ration. Wax works, pottery and glass. Various pieces per- 
fectly baked and equally well enameled and different pieces 
of glass recommended by their size, cleanliness and color. 
Chemical products. A collection of turpentine products, 
sulphate of iron, matches and a collection of salts aud 
saltpetres. Fine arts. Various paintings, statues, archi- 
tectural designs, hollow and lined engravings and filigree 
works. Various objects. Hats, dyers' coppers, carriages, 
sets of teeth, tortoise-shell works, brass beds, glasses aud 
models of glass, glass etchings, mosaic incrustations, inlaid 
work in wood, ivory works, furniture, trappings, coach- 
harness, riding-saddles and cleats, silk masks, embroidery, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 189 

leather bags, printing type, boxes, blank books, lithographs, 
chronio-lithographs, photo-lithographs and various manu- 
factures of henequen and musical instruments. 

COMMERCIAL MUSEUM OF GUADALAJARA. 

The formation of this museum was granted by Mr. 
Mariano Barcena, Governor of the State of Jalisco, in view 
of the continually increasing desire to make known to 
traveling merchants orsimple tourists the industrial improve- 
ments and the elements of local wealth which existed in the 
State and to widen the field of action for commercial trans- 
actions. It was inaugurated on the 16th of September, 
1890, on the lower story of the Engineer School, formerly 
the College of San Juan. 

This museum of industrial products, elementary materials 
and of mining, the first of its kind which was established 
in the country, is intended to show and explain the produc- 
tion of the different places in the State and to stimulate 
progress and perfection in the various industries by adapting 
them to the necessities and tastes of consumers. The 
objects shown and grouped in order have on one side the 
dates referring to their origin, qualities, prices and other 
accounts sufficient to make them known. 




170 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER Y. 

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS. 

I. The law passed by Congress on May 8th, 1891, and 
promulgated the same month and year, increased the 
Secretaryships of State for the dispatch of the business of 
the Federal Administration, to seven, making proper 
distribution of the business in question, and providing that 
in doubtful or cases out of the ordinary, the President of 
the Republic should decide through the medium of the 
Secretary of Relations, to which department the matter 
should be referred for final disposition. The law of 
February 23d, 1861, which had formerly governed the 
subject, had distributed the branches of the public 
administration among the six Departments of State then 
existing, namely : Department of Foreign Relations, In- 
terior Department, Department of Justice and Public Instruc- 
tion, Department of Colonization, Industry and Commerce, 
Department of Finance, and War and Navy Department. 
The new law of 1891, created, as has been stated, another, 
that of Communication and Public Works, to which was 
assigned the disposition of the following branches which had 
heretofore formed part of the jurisdiction of the Interior 
Department and Department of Colonization, Industry and 
Commerce, viz. : Interior Post Offices, Maritime Mediums 
of Communication, or Steamship Mails, Universal Postal 
Union, Telegraphs, Telephones, Railroads, Harbor works, 
Lighthouses, Highways, Promenades, Ports, Rivers, 
Bridges, Lakes and Canals, Domestic Service and Works 
in the National and Chapultepec Palaces and the Drainage 
of the Valley of Mexico. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 



171 



The new Department commenced its labors in the month 
of July, 1891. 

The greater portion of the branches of the administra- 
tion which pertain to this department, and which the plan 
of the work requires to be treated herein, have been 
included in the respective chapters dedicated to Commer- 
cial Development and to the Departments of the Interior 
and Colonization, Industry arid Commerce. 

* Vide Book VI. Public Administration. 




DRAINAGE OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 

Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 



172 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER VI. 

TREASURY AND PUBLIC CREDIT DEPARTMENT. 
THE PUBLIC DEBT. 

I. Although the labors of the Treasury Department have 
been somewhat complicated, they have been of the most 
useful nature, as to them are due the re-establishment of 
the country's credit and the systematic organization now 
existing in its revenues. 

On the 15th of May, 1883, the Executive requested 
authorization from Congress to enable him to arrange the 
national debt, whatever may have been its sources. By 
the law of June 14th of the same year the necessary 
authorization was granted, which had for its main object 
the consolidation of the entire debt into bonds of a new 
issue, to which should accrue an interest of three per cent 
per annum, as well as the re-installment of the deferred 
credits together with those of the legal origin which had 
suffered a discount of four per cent of their value for 
having been presented at the offices of the empire. 

With respect to the debt contracted in London (1824), 
the preparations for its settlement were commenced by 
means of previous arrangements of a private character with 
the committee of bondholders. The result of the various 
conferences held on the subject was the formation of a 
project of arrangement, to which several modifications were 
proposed by the Secretary of the Treasury, who received 
it for examination and afterwards returned it with the 
necessary power to have the respective contract drawn up 
in the name of the Government of the Republic, as well as 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 173 

a project of settlement and conversion of the debt to be 
submitted to the committee of bondholders. 

The respective agreement was also formed, which was 
then sent to Congress for its formal action and approval, 
and although this agreement was declared open to general 
discussion, still it was not approved but withdrawn from 
discussion in November, 1884, by a suspensive proposition, 
due to public manifestations against it. In the following 
January, the commission conferred upon Mr. Noetzlin, as 
attorney of the Government, for the arrangment of the said 
debt, was declared expired. 

In those days the obligations weighing upon the Federal 
revenue were very numerous. The Custom Houses of 
Tampico and Mutamoros were compromised to the extent 
of $94.87 per cent of their receipts, those of Laredo, 
Mier, Camargo and Veracruz with $87.87 per cent, and 
the others with $87.37 per cent. In the Federal District, 
the Tax Department had their receipts pledged in their 
entirety in favor of the National Bank, the Principal Ad- 
ministration of Eevenues had to deliver $2,000 per day, 
and the National Lottery was compromised to turn over its 
entire net profits to the same bank. 

The mints, with the exception of that of Oaxaca, were 
subject to a tax of $2,384,568.67, inalienable, with a 
product of one per cent on the coinage collections, which 
amount corresponds to the Public Revenues as price of 
rental. 

Thirteen buildings of national property were mortgaged 
in favor of the Mortgage Bank in the sum of $880,000, in- 
alienable in twenty years with payments of $24,200 every 
three months. 

To these obligations must be added a deficit of more than 
$23,000,000, the result of preceding fiscal years, as well as 
a decrease of some $6,000,000 in its revenues as compared 
with those of the previous year. 



174 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

The first step taken to save this embarrassing situation 
was that directed towards redeeming the public revenues. 
All debts with the National Bank were liquidated, with 
which institution it was agreed that the balance due it by 
the Public Treasury should be paid by allowing to it 15 
percent of the importation duties, — that the amount due 
the bank should not cause interest, with the exception of 
the balance in its favor on the account current, which debt 
should pay 6 per cent interest per annum, and setting 
aside for the bank $100,000 per month on account of 
credits that were collected through that institution by 
private individuals. It was arranged that the National Lot- 
tery should deliver to the bank only the excess of its 
income, thus freeing it from the pressure of the orders 
issued in 1883 and 1884, looking to the payment of the 
$282,931 which it owed to the said bank. 

The relief thus afforded to the Public Eevenues, and the 
suspension of the payment of the $2,000 daily which the Ad- 
ministration of Revenues had to deliver to the National 
bank, enabled the government to dispose of 60 per cent 
of its normal income. 

The next step taken was to endeavor to increase the rev- 
enues and establish all possible economy, to which end a 
new customs tariff was issued, — the stamp tax amended — 
reducing to one-half the contributions which had been 
doubled in several fractions. On January 29th, 1885, a 
tax on merchandise was created, called the " Internal Rev- 
enue Tax," to substitute the previous one of March 22nd, 
1884, known as the " Stamp Tax on Quoted Merchandise," 
which one had presented great difficulties to the collector 
as well as to the public. Finally, the positions of super- 
numeraries and auxiliaries were suppressed, and the em- 
ployes intrusted with funds who could not guarantee their 
responsibility within the term fixed upon by law were 
dismissed. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 175 

It was nevertheless impossible to meet the government's 
obligations owing to the poor state in which the Public 
Treasury found itself. There was still a deficit of $34,- 
903,353, and it became necessary to consider the expediency 
of again consolidating the debt. The laws and regulations 
of June 22d, in regard to arranging the floating and consol- 
idated debt, were issued, which also bore upon a reduction 
of salaries among the functionaries and employes of the 
Union. In virtue of these laws, the credits against the 
Treasury were converted into certificates drawing 6 per 
cent interest per annum, which operation, together with 
the reduction of salaries which amounted to $2,000,000 per 
annum, and the other economies introduced, the expenses 
were at once reduced to $23,000,000. 

For the registry, verification and conversion of credits 
and claims, an office was established in Mexico under the 
title of « Management of the Public Debt," which office 
was definitely installed on the 13th of February, 1886, as 
also was a Financial Agency in London, empowered to 
transact the requisite operations in regard to the certificates 
of the debt there contracted. Said agency commenced 
business on the 5th of April, of the same year. 

LOANS. 

II. Subsequently, for the purpose of redeeming the float- 
ing debt, to reduce the exterior one and procure funds to 
be applied to the improvement of public finances and to aid 
in the development of the country's resources, the Execu- 
tive negotiated a loan in Berlin of £10,500,000, in the 
exercise of the authority conferred upon him by the law of 
December 13th, 1887. A portion of this loan (£3,700,000) 
was taken up and placed with the Banking House of 
Bleichroeder at 70 per cent, which was the rate fixed upon 
by the said authorization, with an interest of 6 per cent 



176 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

per annum, — and the balance, £6,800,000 face value, which 
was to be applied to. the redemption of the consolidated 
debt certificates placed in London, amounting to £15,000,- 
000, was granted to the same bankers, to whom an option of 
accepting it at 86^- per cent was allowed until the 1st of 
July of the following year, thus making an average of 
80.68 per cent as the basis on. which the loan was nego- 
tiated. 

The contracts of November 27th and December 3rd, 
1886, May 21st, 1887, and April 6th, 1888, were entered 
into with the National Bank for the placing of funds in 
London to meet the dividends accruing on the debt, — for 
paying in Mexico the amount of the coupons of the certifi- 
cates whose interests were payable in the capital, as they 
fell due, — for the placing of funds in New York to meet 
the American debt, — and, finally, for the public debt 
service with which said bank is encharged. 

In June, 1887, an arrangement was consummated with the 
mortgage bank, in pursuance of which the clause relative 
to the payment of interest was annulled, and the sundry 
loans that had been placed with the bank were condensed 
into one, to which institution was conceded an arrangement 
under which the cash deposits which, in virtue of the con- 
tracts that the Department of Colonization, Industry and 
Commerce might enter into, were to serve as guarantee to 
the public and the government, should be changed into 
mortgage bonds. 

The Railroad Debt. 

III. The rapid construction of railroads throughout the 
country brought with them, as a natural consequence, in- 
creased compromises for the government, the payments 
of which could not be refused, nor even postponed, inas- 
much as the appropriations authorized for their payment 
absorbed a considerable portion of the Federal revenues. 




MANUEL GONZALEZ COSIO. 
Secretary of Public Works. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 177 

The Executive having been entitled by the law of the 
14th of May, 1890, to consolidate and convert all the 
subventions due to the railroad enterprises, the govern- 
ment resolved to issue a loan, which was taken up by the 
house of Bleichroeder of Berlin. This loan, amounting- to 
£6,000,000 and on the basis of 6 per cent interest per 
annum payable every three months, was granted to the 
said house, the price of sale having been fixed at 88| 
per cent of its face value on the bonds which the said 
house issued to the public for its own risk and account. It 
was also allowed a commission of one-fourth per cent on the 
amount of payment of the coupons and of the bonds that 
were amortized by lot, and 1 per cent on the total nominal 
value, to cover all emission charges. The Government 
appropriated and assigned, as a guarantee for interests and 
amortizations of the loan, in favor of the bondholders, 12 
per cent of the total amount of the import and export 
duties collected at the Frontier and Maritime Custom 
Houses of the Republic. 

The main object of this operation was to liquidate and 
pay preferentially to the companies that enjoyed a share 
of the customs duties, since with this reduced, an increase 
in the receipts would be obtained which would facilitate 
the payment of the obligations, thus diminishing the 
deficiency. And, in effect, the amount due the rail- 
road companies for the year 1890, was about $40,- 
000,000.00; of these companies there were four 
which enjoyed the benefit of the apportionment, 
viz.: the Mexican Central which received 8 percent; the 
Mexican Railway, 6 per cent; the Mexican National, 6 per 
cent; and the Interoceanic, 3 per cent; appropriations 
which amounted to 23 per cent. The credit against the 
exchequers of the two first-mentioned companies, which, 
from the same period, accepted the conversion, amounted, 
for the year 1890, to $23,082,212.30, and without delay 

12 



178 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

there was applied to them, deducting the discount, and as 
a balance, $17,871,486,31, which transaction produced a 
difference in favor the Federal exchequer of $5,210,725.99, 
which sura represents the reduction in the railroad debt. 

An increase of 2 per cent was also made, above the 
customs duties, in the receipts of the exchequer, this 
portion being the exemption, between the 14 which the 
two companies enjoyed, and the 12 which represented 
the guarantee of the loan. The same loan was utilized for 
the purpose of balancing the deficiency which existed in the 
fiscal year 1890-1891 and the account of the National Bank 
which amounted to, approximately, some $9,000,000.00. 

It may be remarked that the sums given in cash and in 
certificates of construction, amortised with a certain 
percentage of the import duties, to railroad enterprises, 
make a total of $64,794,371.62, which the Federal Gov- 
ernment has paid to the companies in question up to 
June 30th, 1892 ; which payment was made principally 
during the last ten years. If, to the former sum, be added 
$19,743,000.00, which is the value of the bonds issued for 
the same subventions, some at par with 5 per cent annual 
interest, and others at 90 per cent of their nominal value, 
with 6 per cent interest, there would result a total of 
$84,537,371.62 paid by the exchequer for account of 
acquired subventions. 

Since the end of June, 1892, in which period Mr. 
Matias Romero was in charge of the Treasury Depart- 
ment, he began to examine and formally study the situa- 
tion which at present confronts the Federal Treasury, and 
there was found to be a large increase in the pecuniary 
obligations in the shape of periodical payments, which the 
nation labors under; an increase occasioned by the fact 
that the compromises made by the government, carry with 
them the right of revenue to a great extent, and must be 
paid in gold, whereas in reality silver suffers a large de- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 179 

prcciation and the consequent charge for exchange. This 
circumstance, the largest and most costly public improve- 
ments which the nation actually demands, the failure of 
the crops during the year 1891, the consequent decrease in 
domestic commercial transactions, and imports (due to the 
extra charge which articles of merchandise are burdened 
with by reason of the necessity of paying for them in gold) 
demonstrated the probable decrease which would be neces- 
sary to effect in the economical estimate of expenditures 
for the years 1892-1893. In view of this, an equalization 
of the estimates of expenditures was effected and a system 
of strict economy and reduction of expenses to the lowest 
possible point was immediately adopted, — and this without 
prejudice to the compromises of the government, or injury 
to the efficiency of the service of the administration. 

It was recognized as absolutely necessary to discontinue 
the system of granting subventions to railroad enterprises; 
to abolish completely the " alcabalas," or State taxes, which 
the constitution of 1857 attempted to suppress, and to seek 
for new bases of taxation which would serve to increase the 
public revenues. With this end in view, a tax was created 
on tobaccos and alcohols, and another, applicable to the 
entire country, on transversal inheritances, establishing a 
miaiimum quota upon ancestors and descendants, and bur- 
dening insurance transactions, which heretofore had only paid 
2 per cent upon the amount of the premiums. It was deter- 
mined to reorganize the offices of the Federal treasury and 
to introduce into the custom-house tariff such modifications 
of certain duties, which manifestly would be of public 
benefit, taking steps in the meantime for the radical revis- 
ion of the present ruling tariff, although the results which 
might be produced thereby could not be foreseen, owing to 
the prohibitive character. In the same manner, certain 
changes were made in the law of June 6, 1892, which estab- 
lished a tax upon mining property, and suggested the 



180 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

propriety of doing away with the system of renting the 
public mints to private individuals, for fees to the Federal 
government and the Department of Mines. 

NATIONAL DEBT. 

IV. The state of the public debt until 30th June, 1892, as 
below, has been arranged by the ** Financial Review " of 
the City of Mexico, with official data furnished by Treas- 
ury Department. 

Capital. Interest. 
Remainder in circulation of the old debt of Lon- 
don and English Exconventiou 6% £ 110,250 £ 3,307 

First loan Bleichroeder (1888) 6% 10,500,000 630,000 

Railroad loan (1890) .....6% 6,000,000 360,000 

Bonds of the railroad of Tehuantepec 5% 2,700,000 135,000 

Loan of the City of Mexico 5% 2,400,000 120,000 

Total £21,710,250 £1,248,307 

Reduced into Mexican currency, 36 pennies per 
dollar : 

Capital $144,735,000 

Interest 8,322,046 

And convert our debt in gold into Mexican currency we 
can already calculate the total amount of our Public Debt. 

Capital. Interest. 

The foreign debt in gold reduced to Mexican 

currency $144,735,000 $ 8,322,046 

Approximate value of the domestic debt on the 

30th of June, 1892 3% 32,000,000 960,000 

Eight million dollars convertible at 10% 800,000 24,000 

Certificates of alcances in circulation till 30th 

June, 1890 2,906,076 

Unpaid balances of the estimates, payable until 

30th of June, 1890 8,612,785 

Balances paid by the Treasury until 30th June, 
18S2, which must be considered in the con- 
solidated debt 2,605,999 78,179 

Bonds of the harbor works of Tonala 500,000 30,000 

Bonds of the harbor works in Veracruz, approx- 
imately 2,000,000 250,000 

Bonds of the harbor works of Tampico, having 

already a depth of 18 feet, 30th June, 1892 3,000,000 180,000 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 181 

Capital. Interest. 

Bonds of the railroad from Matamoros to Guate- 
mala frontier 600,000 36,000 

Bonds of the railroad from Torreon to Durango. 600,000 36,000 

Mexican National Kailroad — approximate bal- 
ance from 1892 to 1898 1,080,000 1,080,000 

Southern Kailroad, finished in September, 1892; 
actual value of twenty-one annuities of 
$880,800 with premium, calculated by the an- 
nual interest 6% 10,384,000 880,800 

KAILROAD BONDS. 

Monterrey and Gulf, 650 kilometers $5,200,000 $346,000 

Tonala to Frontera (bonds) 480,000 32,000 

Maravatio to Iguala (bonds) 180,000 10,800 

San Marcos to Nautla (bonds) 420,000 25,200 

Chihuahua to La Sierra (bonds) 80,000 4,800 

Pachuca to Tampico (bonds) 400,000 24,000 

Cash debt, without interest, to different railroads 1 , 786,000 . . 

To the lessors of the mints until 30th June, 

1890 2,169,000 66,000 

Cash debt to International and Mortgage Bank 

until 30th June, 1890 1,044,186 114,860 

$221,583,046 $12,500,685 

With data furnished by Mr. Matias Eomero, Secretary 
of Finance, the following statement concerning the Mexican 
credit has been formed, which demonstrate the progress 
reached by the Mexican finances in seven years, from 1885 
to 1892: 

VALUE OF THE PUBLIC DEBT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES, 1885. 

Argentina 102 

Brazil 100 

Chili 105 

Columbia , 20 

Costa Rica , 24 

Equador 9 

Guatemala , 32 

Honduras 6 

Mexico , I9f 

Paraguay 13 

Peru 16 1 

Uruguay 41 

Venezuela • 31 



182 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



VALUE OF THE PUBLIC DEBT ON THE SAME COUNTRIES, 1892. 

Argentina • 40 -50 

Brazil 65-66 

Chili 9l£-92£ 

Columbia 21£-22£ 

Costa Rica 63 -66 

Equador . . .' 17£-18£ 

Guatemala 43£-42£ 

Honduras ' 7|- 8£ 

Mexico 85^-86 

Paraguay 25-29 

Peru ' 10 

Uruguay 34f-35| 

Venezuela • • • • 44£-45£ 

Comparing both statement can be noted that Mexico's 
credit has raised from the ninth place, that occupied in 
1885, to the second place ; almost on a par with Chili. 



ACTUAL CONDITION OF THE PUBLIC TREASURY. 

V. Since the final assurance of peace in the Republic was 
given, no more arduous undertaking, of the most difficult 
and delicate character in its accomplishment, has confronted 
the Government than the organization of the Public Treas- 
ury. After fifty years of lawlessness, revolutions, changes 
in the government, foreign interventions, bad management, 
in short, how to bring order out of the chaotic condition of 
our finances, and at the same time undertake enormous 
expenses for the preservation of peace, the development of 
the rich resources of the country, protect the compromises 
made in foreign countries and meet the requirements of 
the administration, was a problem little short of being 
unsolvable. 

With the triumph of the saving revolution, there followed 
a period of uncertainty, of distrust, which brought com- 
mercial development during these years to a condition of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 183 

statu quo, with great injury to the needs of the Government, 
from which no relief could be had until confidence became 
firmly established in 1880. From this year the receipts of 
the Federal Treasury, which, from 1874 to 1876, had been 
reduced to $14,000,000.00, were successively increased 
during the succeeding four years, to twenty-one, twenty- 
three, twenty-eight and thirty millions of dollars, dimin- 
ishing later by~some two millions, owing to the acknowl- 
edgment of the English debt, which caused such an 
unwarranted scandal in the Republic. Meanwhile, and in 
conformity with the policy which has been followed so ener- 
getically by the new governments of Mexico, immense 
expenses were undertaken to subvention railroad lines, the 
resultant benefits of which could not be immediately ob- 
tained. Immense sums were expended in influencing 
foreign immigration to the Republic, and large amounts 
were devoted to public improvements, etc., all of which 
placed the Government in the position of being obliged to 
make good its credit with foreign nations, as has already 
been stated. 

As if all this were not sufficient to confuse our finances, 
the failure of the crops of 1891 and the scarcity of products 
in the year 1892, followed in succession, which, impover- 
ishing the people, owing to the high prices demanded for 
the necessaries of life, and preventing them from expend- 
ing their small savings in the purchase of articles of for- 
eign production, paralyzed the import trade, and this, 
necessarily, resulted in injury to the custom house receipts. 
On the heels of this disaster there followed the depreciation 
in the value of silver and the consequent rise in foreign 
exchange ; and, if it is remembered that silver is the cur- 
rent money of the country, and that the value of the im- 
ports must be paid in- gold, in addition to which the 
unlooked for depreciation followed another rise, also unex- 
pected, it is not to be wondered at that the import business 



184 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of Mexico should have suffered a terrible unsettling of its 
mercantile calculations, and, therefore, placed it in a differ- 
ent position as an auxilary of the Government, to withstand 
new imposts. As a result of all this, the deficit in the 
reciepts of the Federal Treasury, which had been making 
itself felt in former years, became further intensified, caus- 
ing a decrease in the receipts of the exchequer, from $44,- 
142,857.00 for the fiscal year 1890-91, to $39,019,414.00 
for the year 1891-92, or a deficit of $5,813,442.00.* 

The crisis is not yet passed, and the opportunity is 
favorable for remarking that, it was the profound wisdom 
of the Government, and the vital condition of the country, 
which has enabled the latter to withstand the rude shocks 
of adversity without falling into misery, and the former 
to maintain intact the credit of the Nation with foreign 
countries, keeping ever distant from bankruptcy. The 
county owes much, from this point of view, to the highly 
reputed financier, Mr. Matias Romero, who, among other 
happy expedients, which, without the shadow of a doubt, 
contributed greatly to the salvation of the public credit, 
has introduced for the next fiscal year of 1893-94, strict 
economy in the expenses of the public service, without, 
however, affecting the efficiency of the administration. 

It has been calculated that the new taxes and above men- 
tioned economies will increase the resources of i;he Treasury 
in near $3,300,000 for the next fiscal year. 

Mexico's revenues and expenditures. f 

VI. The different sources of the Federal Revenue, that 
form the income budget of the Republic, are as stated: 
Custom Houses, Stamp Taxes, Direct Taxes, Federal Dis- 



* We have here considered the receipts of the estimate and the extra- 
ordinary ones. The amount of the estimate was $37,474,879. 
f Vide, Book VI, chapt. 1st. 




JOSE IVES LIMANTOUR. 

Secretary of Finance. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



185 



trict and Territories and Sundries. Here is the percentage 
of this contribution of the several branches: 

1889-90. 

Custom Duties j^.OG 

Stamp Tax " fi _ 

Direct Taxes *~® 

Federal District and Territories ^j" 

Sundries ' 7,iU 

100.00 

The State Revenues compared by decades show an in- 
crease of 133 per cent, in twenty years, viz : 

,070 71 $16,033,649 

ioSO-81 23,172,723 

1890-91 "• 37,391,804 

isK::. • 37,474,879 

The growth by decades of the cash revenue of the 
Republic from its different sources, in the period that we 
have above considered, is as follows : 

1869-70 1879-80 1889-90 

Custom Duties $8,510,532 $12,754,518 $23,356,327 

Stamp Tax ■ 1,897,894 3,847,990 7,937,927 

Direct Taxes 485,452 592,688 1,447,149 

Federal District and Territories. . • » . 1,312,859 1,175,884 1,591,793 

Sundries 1,471,505 2,752,957 2,297,279 

$13,678,242 $21,124,037 $36,630,475 

The following are the expenses of government in the 
fiscal year 1891-92, as recently published: 

Authorized Actual 

BRANCHES OF THE BUDGET. Expenditures for the Expenses for the 

fiscal year 1S91-92 fiscal year 1S91-92 

1. Legislature $1,023,040.35 $956,007.41 

2. Executive 49,977.20 43,465.94 

3. Judiciary 476,784.50 466,312.53 

4. Foreign Affairs 577,436.75 508,620.86 

5 Interior.. • 2,524,051.93 2,425,511.23 

Q. Justice.'.' • 1,789,636.25 1,669,505.32 

7. Col. Industry and Commerce. 798,668.85 640,178.18 

8. Communications and Public Works.... 4,619.506.81 4,144,649.85 

9. Treasury 23,179,853.69 20,268,423.63 

lo". WarandNavy 12,793,636.5 12,226,874.67 

Totals $ 47,832,592.83 $ 43,349,549.62 

Difference between the authorized expendi- 
tures and the expenses $4,483,043.21 



186 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER VII. 

WAR DEPARTMENT. 
WORK OF ORGANIZATION. 

I. The military institutions inherited from Spain formed 
for many years in Mexico the basis and the formation and 
constitution of Mexico's army. This was the case in spite 
of their manifest unfitness for the new political system and 
though they were entirely unadapted to the advances made 
in the science of war. 

The different administrations which followed each other 
since 1821, introduced some improvements, slowly indeed, 
but still they were improvements, into the tactics 
and armaments. Nevertheless in 1867, on the fall of the 
Empire, it was felt that the army had many defects which 
must be made good before it should be constituted in a 
regular and complete manner. With this object works of 
reorganization were begun which, however, did not pro- 
duce their due effects on account of the attention of the 
government being withdrawn to other politics. When the 
triumph of the Tuxtepec revolution was effected by the 
occupation of the capital of the Republic by the troops, 
who proclaimed the new plan on the 24th of November 
1876, then followed immediately the establishment of a 
general peace. This opened up a new field of action for 
the Secretaryship of war and projects of reform in the 
national army were at once unrolled. 

The organization and number of the forces were from 
1860 to 1877 the source of yearly debates in the Congress, 
and the Executive could not, therefore, adopt a definite 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 187 

organization which would be exposed to changes caused by 
the political state of the Republic. 

In the year 1877 the first measures of reform in the war 
department were dictated. These had for their object the 
lessening of the number of the army, the unnecessary 
superiors and officers being relegated to guard duty. The 
effective troops, who at the end of December, in 1876, 
amounted to 33,291 men, were on the 30th of November, 
1877, reduced to 26,936. They were then organized in 
flying brigades of infantry, cavalry and mixed, in divis- 
ions with general fixed quarters and in an army body 
intended to assist the brigades when necessary. In a 
memorial dated the 10th of December, 1878, the war 
secretaryship asked from the Congress powers to improve 
the scientific and administrative organization of the army. 
These were granted by decree on the 14th of the same 
month. 

By virtue of these powers the Executive created, on the 
24th of January of the following year 1879, in the War Sec- 
retaryship, the department of the Special Body of Superior 
Rank. This is composed of the superiors and faculty 
officers and their decrees were issued on the 15th of the 
following September. 

The labors of this department, which, among other duties, 
has charge of the general organization and regulation of 
the army, brought about among other reforms the issuing 
of the decrees of the 25th of January, 1879. By these 
decrees the persons composing the Staff are determined. 
They regulate also the organization of the Bodies of 
Engineers and of Artillery and arrange that of the Military 
Medical Body. This latter was reformed on the 2d of 
March and the 14th of May, 1880, on the 28th of June, 
1881, and on the 3d of July, 1882, and had new regulations 
laid down for it on the 22d of April, 1880. These new 
rules were substituted for the old ones of the 1st of April, 



188 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

1855. By virtue of the above decrees important reforms 
were made in the Military College also. These decrees, 
together with the regulations of the 1st of March, 1879, 
were crowned by the new reforms of the 23d of June, 
1881, and by the plan of studies issued on the 22d of 
February, 1883. A company of Mounted Police was like- 
wise created for important police service in the army. 

Decrees were sent forth on the 2d of April and 15th of 
May, 1879, and on the- 19th of May, 1880, for the regulat- 
ing of the Infantry and Cavalry Departments in the War 
Ministry as well as for that of infantry battalions and per- 
manent cavalry regiments. 

In the January of 1880, instructions were given for 
the management of the smaller war vessels. The number 
of men in the national navy was increased by a resolution 
passed on the 8th of March of the same year and on the 
26th of March, 1881, its regulations were definitely fixed. 

The greater part of these resolutions, besides others 
which have been omitted for the sake of brevity and which 
had for their object the provisional organization of the 
army, were re-drawn up with certain modifications and now 
form one body in the decree of the 28th of June, 1881. 

On the 30th of June, of the same year, the Military Ad- 
ministrative Body was established and formed an integral 
part of the Federation Treasury. This corporation lasted 
till the 30th of January, of the year 1885, when it was 
suppressed and in its place was established the third section 
of the General Treasury. This latter has at present the 
charge of making the military payments and its members, 
like the paymasters of the army, are of a purely civil 
character. 

On the 24th of November, 1881, a new regulation was 
issued for the service of the War Secretaryship reforming 
to a certain extent the previous one of the 30th of June, 
1880. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 189 

The reform then in the organization of the army had 
begun. The rules and regulations which we have men- 
tioned tended to nullify the defects and vices which had 
crept into the army during the long period of revolutions 
through which the Eepublic had passed. They were also 
directed in such a way as to render more uniform the 
army legislation which consisted of a chaos of resolutions 
which the governments and various factions issued, put in 
force or abolished as it suited their particular interests. 

GENERAL ORDINANCE. 

II. The General Ordinance of the army however had been 
already reformed in 1852, but displayed in some of its re- 
gulations notorious contradictions to the rules of the Con- 
stitution of 1857. It became absolutely necessary to 
reform it and bring it into conformity with the institutions 
then in force and with the advances made in the art of 
war. 

A commission was indeed appointed, the president of 
which was General Felipe Berriozabal. After a short time 
on the 10th of September, 1880, it presented a project 
which was approved of and ordered to be printed on the 
23d of the same month in order that it might be laid before 
Congress. 

The President, Gonzalez, however, wished the project of 
Ordinance to be subjected to a careful revision and he en- 
gaged in the work himself, having for his secretaries 
General Jose Montesinos and Colonel Francisco Troncoso. 
The former was superior officer of the ministry of war and 
the' latter chief of the special body of the staff. 

Two years later the new Ordinance, corrected and 
enlarged, was put in force by a decree of the 6th of 
December, 1882, which made its rules binding from the 
1st of January, 1883. From that date the previous gen- 



190 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

eral ordinance of 1852, and all other military regulations 
opposed to this law were abrogated. 

On the same date, namely the 6th of December, 1882, 
was issued the law regulating the Military Supreme Court 
of Justice. Along with this court and by the same law 
were established the four tribunals of instruction, all of 
which were to commence their duties on the 1st of January, 
1883. 

The President being empowered to issue the regulations 
for the National Guard, by the law dated the 2d of May, 
1883, it was directed that the department of the staff 
should compile its project, and this being done, it was 
forwarded on the 30th of May, 1886, through the govern- 
ment secretaryship to the Congress to obtain its approba- 
tion. 

RECRUITING. 

In order to fill up vacancies in the army the country has 
had recourse to the systems of enlistment, lots, and pressing. 
Want of funds and of a good policy has been the cause of 
difficulties in carrying out practically to a successful issue 
the two first systems. The last has only been resorted to at 
extraordinary crisis or when fighting for independence 
or the institutions of the Republic. 

The law of the 28th of May 1869 regulates the recruiting, 
giving as its basis lots, and it grants to the legislatures of 
the States the power to substitute for lots the enlistment of 
volunteers. These regulations have not been fully carried 
out, for some States do not supply recruits, others only a 
part of their proper contingent, and there are but few that 
send in their full total. 

As it has been impossible to enforce in Mexico generally 
the idea of the citizens' duty to serve in the national army 
for a fixed time, the organization has therefore in certain 
cases been effected bv forced recruiting and some States 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 191 

have been compelled to make up their contingent of men 
who were unworthy of the military service. 



RECRUITS. 

The law already mentioned of 1869, and its different 
regulations are still in force and in conformity with its 
orders the States furnish the contingent necessary to 
make up the deficiencies of the army. The recruiting 
officers residing in the various capitals of the States are 
charged with the duty of receiving recruits, enrolling them 
and instructing them until they are incorporated in the 
batallion or regiment to which they are assigned by the 
superiors of the different zones. 

Those under 21 years of age, who are not married, if 
they offer to serve voluntarily in the army are bound to 
show the permission of their fathers or tutors, or if they 
have none or if permission is refused without a justifying 
reason, then that of the first political authority is asked. 
Those who are married even though under 21 years of age 
require no permission whatever. The conditions necessary 
for a recruit to be admitted into the army are: to be above 
18 years of age and under 47 ; to be a Mexican either by 
birth or naturalization ; not to suffer from any chronic or 
contagious disease; to be strong; not to have any such phy- 
sical defect as would make him appear ridiculous or a 
monster; not to have any hurt that would hinder the full 
use of his weapons ; not to be deaf nor lacking in intelli- 
gence; to speak Spanish and to be at least 1.60 metres in 
height. 

The corporation superiors are bound to see this regula- 
tion carried out as far as it relates to the age and height 
of the recruit and it is laid down that the military physicians 
must not take into account the under or over-age of such 
persons or their want of height as causes of incapacity but 



192 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

must limit themselves to declaring their incapacity by- 
reason of their physical condition. 

Both for the admission of recruits and for the rejection 
of the unfit which take place every quarter of a year, the 
military physicians adhere to the list of diseases which 
incapacitate for army service and which was issued by the 
Secretaryship of War on the 3rd of August, 1888. Indeed 
it has been ordered that in those barracks where there is 
no infirmary a place must be set apart furnished with the 
necessary instruments for the examination of recruits and 
incapables, and that this examination take place at the times 
already mentioned. The major or failing him the captain 
of the week gives orders to the companies to form in their 
respective squares and to the persons judged incapable of 
service to step forward. The physician is told of the 
reasons of incapacity alleged and makes a due examination 
if necessary. The soldiers whose time is out and who 
wish to re-enlist are subject to a fresh examination by the 
doctor of the battalion or regiment to which they belong 
in order to see if they still retain the conditions of health 
necessary for recruits entering the service. The govern- 
ment, in its proposal to form an army of soldiers who 
would be volunteers and efficient and would remain 
soldiers with capacity of acquiring good military instruction 
has laid down various regulations. Among them may be 
mentioned those which order that from the day on which 
a recruit begins to receive his pay, six cents are daily 
deducted until the sum of ten dollars is made up. This 
amount remains as a deposit in the General Treasury of 
the Federation or sometimes in the chief exchequer of the 
different States until the above mentioned sura is completed. 
If the recruit does not then wish to continue in the service, 
this amount is used to pay for a substitute, but if there is 
no substitute forthcoming, then the ten dollars are handed 
over to him on completing his term of service, so that this 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 193 

amount together with the sum which the law allows as a 
gratification to those who have completed their term of 
service, may enable the recruit to retire on better con- 
ditions. 

This regulation was issued because one of the principal 
reasons why there are still pressed soldiers in the army, is 
because the recruits furnished by the States are neither vol- 
unteers nor have they the necessary means to pay for a 
substitute who would free them from the service. 



ARMY DISBURSEMENTS. 

As soon as a man is enrolled as a soldier he receives into 
his own hand the pay which the law ordains for toilet, 
barber and common expenses. He is famished beforehand 
with a pair of trousers and a cloth coat, the same for drill, 
two shirts and two pairs of drawers, a pair of shoes, a 
neck-tie and a sun-shade, a kepi, two handkerchiefs and a 
provision bag, an overcoat and a knapsack, a blanket, a 
carry-all with plates and a carrier, a gun-holder and a 
blanket strap, schacots and straps. The cavalry soldier, 
trooper, mounted artillery and train receive a cleaning 
brush, a corn-bag and a blouse, a belt and sabre-sash, sad- 
dle and trappings, a cloak, a pair of spurs with straps, a 
saddle-rug, a nose-bag, an apron, a brush and a curry-comb. 

The whole of the troops wear white gloves on parade and 
each soldier has for cleanliness, a clothes-brush, a blacking- 
brush, a comb, a tin box for blacking, a purse containing 
thimble, thread, buttons and needles and another tin box 
for soap. 

On exceptional occasions when the mess is served to the 
various bodies of the army, it is abundant, of good quality, 
well seasoned and to pay for it only twelve cents a bead are 
required. 

13 



194 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



TERM OF SERVICE. 



The service is obligatory for five years for corporals and 
soldiers and those who remain in the army during this 
period of time without deserting or being sentenced to a 
longer term of service, are proposed, as having completed 
their term, to have given to them their full liberty and to 
receive a gratification of twenty dollars. 

This gratification is due to those of the troops whose 
annual pay does not exceed $160.60 cents and have served 
their full time, or to those who have become sick owing 
to the hard labor of the service and have become incapable 
of further duty. 

The incapable or those who have been incapacitated in 
war or in any campaign, have the right of being transferred 
to the Batallion of Invalids. Full freedom to retire is 
granted on the day on which they complete their term of 
service and they remain excepted from service forever after- 
wards unless in cases of international war or when they are 
actually engaged in a campaign at the time of the com- 
pletion of their service. In such cases they remain only 
during such time as is absolutely necessary and they have 
granted to them as an extra gratification one dollar per 
month. 

Those troops who have served out their time may, if 
they wish, continue voluntarily in the service and if they 
have observed good conduct, can re-enlist for four years 
more. For this new engagement of theirs they receive a 
gratification of $20. Those also who have retired with full 
freedom from the army and have asked to be re-admitted 
into the service receive a like gratification, but this is on con- 
dition that not more than six months have elapsed since their 
retirement. Re-enlistments can be renewed for periods of 
four vears. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 195 



GENERALS. 

There are two classes of generals in the army, namely, 
the Division Generals, which is the highest rank to which 
a military man can aspire, and the Brigade Generals. In 
accordance with the Ordinance the number of the former is 
ten, five exercising authority and five in barracks and it is 
impossible to become a Brigade General if there is not a 
vacancy to be filled ; the number of the latter is thirty-two, 
one-half with command and the other half in barracks. 

The appointment of Brigade Generals may be made from 
among the effective colonels even when the} 7 have not 
graduated as generals. The vacancies among the Division 
Generals are filled up from amonsf the effective Brigade 
Generals, whilst the places of these latter are filled by grad- 
uated generals and effective colonels. The commissioned 
generals are those who have a seat in the supreme military 
tribunals of the Federation, those military commanders 
who have this actual office, the generals in chief of Divis- 
ions and of Brigades and all who have been in active 
service. The generals who have not been commissioned 
are considered as in barracks. They enjoy the military 
honors and considerations which the ordinance appoints to 
be given to those who do not exercise authority, and in 
times of peace they choose for their residence the place 
most agreeable to them, whilst in time of war the govern- 
ment assigns them their barracks so that they may be ready 
for service should it be necessary. 

The general of a Division or of a Brigade can obtain his 
retirement, if he applies for it, either for reasons of physical 
impossibility or for any other cause subject to the rules laid 
down in the ordinance. In such cases they are excepted 
from all military service although it is their duty to offer it 
to the government in cases of public disturbance of the 



196 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

peace. They enjoy also the military honors and consider- 
ations appointed for those in barracks. They can likewise 
obtain their absolute retirement and again return to the 
service if they so request within two years after their retire- 
ment has been granted and if the government thinks their 
services of advantage. 



RETIREMENT. 

Furlough may be granted to the soldiers of the army in 
order that they may attend to their private affairs or on ac- 
count of sickness. In the first case it may last four months, 
and during the first month they receive full pay and during 
the second half pay. In the second case it may last 
for six months with full pay all the time. Unlimited 
furlough is granted to the commanders and officers of the 
permanent army in order that they may retire from the 
service for an indefinite time either at their own request or 
because the government so disposes when reducing the 
numbers. This retirement brings with it no pay and 
absolute retirement is given to such persons if after two 
months they are not summoned back by the government 
as required. The document giving absolute retirement 
implies total separation from the army and is handed to 
more than the generals for it is given to the commanders, 
officers and sergeants who apply for it ; to the soldiers who 
have served their full time ; to those who for faults have 
been sentenced to this punishment by competent judges; 
to those who have been proposed for it by the committees 
of honor of battalions or regiments of the army, and to 
commanders and officers who have been lowered and have 
afterwards interposed a justification with the result that the 
tribunal ratified the lowering. He who obtains it at his 
own request may return to the service within two years, 
unless the retirement has been granted on throwing up a 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 197 

commission confided to him, or at the moment of commenc- 
ing a campaign in which his force should take part, for in 
such cases he enters the army as a common soldier and if 
he is rehabilitated by Congress he loses his priority. 



PROMOTION. 

The promotions which can be obtained in the different 
branches of the army are as follows : 1st. From soldier to 
soldier of the first class. 2nd. From soldier of the 1st 
class to corporal. 3d. From corporal to 2nd sergeant. 
4th. From 2nd sergeant to 1st sergeant. 5th. From 1st 
sergeant to sublieutenant. 6th. From sublieutenant to 
lieutenant. 7th. From lieutenant to 2nd captain. 8th. 
From 2nd captain to 1st captain. 9th. From 1st captain, 
according to fitness, to adjutant or major. 10th. From 
major to lieutenant-colonel. 11th. From lieutenant-col- 
onel to colonel. 12th. From colonel to effective General 
of Brigade. 13th. From General of Brigade to General 
of Division, the highest grade in the army. 

The things taken into consideration when granting pro- 
motion are: good civil and military conduct, aptitude and 
notable progress in the knowlege of the branch of the army 
to which the person to be promoted belongs, firmness of 
character and fitness to command, honor in all its mean- 
ings, civil and military, love for the profession of arms, mil- 
itary spirit, proper age and without defects, sufficient knowl- 
edge to fulfill the duties imposed by new position and for 
the higher ranks ; besides the considerations already men- 
tioned there must be a technical knowledge of all the arms 
of the forces. 

MORALITY. 

In order to secure morality in the army, committees of 
honor have been established since the 28th of December, 



198 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

1838. These deliberate and decide upon the dismissal of 
such as, owing to bad conduct, ought not to belong to the 
service. In each battalion or regiment there is one of 
these committees composed of the colonel, the lieutenant- 
colonel, one major, two captains, a second captain, a lieu- 
tenant and a sublieutenant or ensign. These are appointed 
by a majority of the votes of the officers belonging to the 
battalion or regiment, the votes being taken in a general 
meeting which takes place in the December of each year. 
The committee of honor takes cognizance only of such 
faults as, without being crimes, may, however, stain the fair 
name of the battalion or regiment or the honor of its 
officers. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT . 

III. The Secretaryship of War is a condensation of all 
the details of the army. It has for its service four sections, 
a general record office and seven departments. 

The first section concentrates the business sent to it from 
the chief clerk's office to which it is annexed. It formu- 
lates the expressions and forwards everything connected 
with petitions of pardon, telegraphic and telephonic cor- 
respondence, notices of the movements of the army forces, 
revolutionary movements and those of troops, of places 
besieged, escorts safe-conducts and the correspondence with 
the governors of the different States. 

The second section takes charge of the issue of patents to 
the generals, commanders and officers of the army and navy, 
the declaring of pensions, furloughs and absolute and lim- 
ited retirements, orders to the military commandership 
for the issue of passports and regulations referring to 
freights and passages in the railways, diligences and 
steamers. 

The third section has care of the accounts, the issuing of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 199 

bills granted in accordance with the war tax, of all that 
relates to billeting, barrack buildings, passages and freights 
and an ante-revision of accounts. It has also charge of the 
revision of the telegraph accounts of State Governors and 
of the particulars of the general provisions of forage. In 
genera] it has to do with every claim of payment made 
upon the government, and which does not relate to the 
organization or administration of the army. 

The library section undertakes the management of the 
library of the secretaryship, the publication of laws, 
decrees, regulations, circulars and other business in the 
same line, the preserving of autographs or original docu- 
ments 'which bear the signature of the President of the 
Eepublic, excepting only the patents and diplomas, the pur- 
chase of stationery for the secretaryship, the register of 
review arrangements, the issue of passports and the 
signed reports of the various sections and departments. 

The record section takes under its charge the preservation 
and arrangement in alphabetical order of all that is issued 
from the sections and departments and of all other docu- 
ments which the chief clerk determines should enter this 
section. 

In conformity with the decree of reforms dated the 29th 
of February, 1892, the staff of these five sections is as 
follows: 2 infantry colonels who are principals of the sec- 
tion; 4 cavalry colonels, also principals of the section; 1 
consulting lawyer, 1 lieutenant-colonel of infantry, 3 of 
the same and likewise of cavalry, 1 infantry major, 3 cav- 
alry majors, 1 first captain of infantry, 4 of the same and 
also of cavalry ; 1 second captain of infantry, 5 of the 
same and likewise of cavalry, 7 infantry lieutenants, 2 of 
the same and also of cavalry, 2 sub-lieutenants, of infantry, 
9 ensigns, 10 first sergeants, 5 office boys, and 1 porter. 

The Department of the Special Body of the Staf, is the 
most important belonging to the secretary's office and in 



200 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

time of war has intrusted to it the following matters: The 
organization of the army in general and its disposal for 
garrison, zones, camps or cantonments, the movements of 
the troops and military expeditions, correspondence with 
different authorities as regards the men, war materials, 
works, instructions and service of the army; the general 
details of the army, the pass-word, countersign, etc., the 
army administration, estimates and expenses, the bil- 
leting of troops, the States and their condition with re- 
gard to men and war materials, military hospitals, depots 
of clothes, equipment and food, maintaining and employing 
the means of transport, the maintenance of order and disci- 
pline among the army bodies, the administration of justice 
in the same, retirement, furloughs and changes, prisoners 
of war, general police and security, espionage, military 
acknowledgments, letters and plans, truce ambassadors, 
agreements, the staffs, reports and accounts of battles 
with their military criticism, judgments sent to generals in 
chief or commanders of troops after an action ; punish- 
ments and losses, encampments and bivouacs, fortified 
camps and the general supply of the army. 

In time of peace, the same department has under its 
management the following affairs: extraordinary missions, 
staffs, knowledge of places and their products ; the study 
of strategical points for use in time of war, military 
acknowledgments and plans of campaign ; the formation of 
the military tribunals of the Republic and the particulars 
of each State; divisions of the army among the States; 
the roads of the Republic, the general supply of the army, 
the formation and revision of military regulations ; clothes 
depots, equipment and food; the yearly report of war and 
its general statistics. 

The staff of this department is as follows: 1 brigade 
general, principal of the Body and of the Department, 2 
infantry majors, 2 cavalry majors, 5 first cavalry captains, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 201 

1 second infantry captain, 3 second cavalry ones, 3 lieuten- 
ants of infantry, 6 cavalry lieutenants, 4 first sergeants of 
cavalry and 4 office boys. 

The Department of Engineers undertakes all that pertains 
to the Military College, the Battalion of Engineers, perma- 
nent fortification works and the repairs of military 
buildings. 

Its staff is composed of 1 brigade general, chief of the 
Department and of the Body, 1 lieutenant colonel of the 
Faculty staff of Engineers, 1 captain of the same, 1 first 
cavalry captain, 1 second cavalry captain, 1 infantry lieu- 
tenant and 1 office boy. 

The Artillery Department, has to do with the staff of the 
army ; the general park ; battalions in service and the 
reserves ; train squadrons, companies stationed in ports and 
fortresses, naval storehouses, the national manufacture of 
arms, national foundry, the national manufacture of 
powder, foreign warehouses, the central theory and practice 
school for instruction in the different weapons and the 
target school. 

The staff of the department is made up of 1 brigade gen- 
eral, 2 colonels of the Faculty Staff of artillery, subinspect- 
ors; 1 cavalry colonel, 2 lieutenant colonels of artillery, 1 
account principal, 1 account officer, 4 first artillery captains, 
2 first cavalry captains, 1 first warehouseman, 4 second, 11 
first park-keepers, 2 second, 3 clerks and 1 office boy. 

The Faculty Department Committee consists of 1 colonel, 
1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors and 4 captains, all of artillery. 

The Infantry and Cavalry Department has charge of all 
that relates to the infantry both as regards economy and 
administration ; it also has care of inspection, reviews, dis- 
cipline and morality; promotions and reductions, the 
organization of battalions, companies and isolated piquets; 
furloughs ; justifying causes of reviews, the promotions and 
declaration of veterans; filling up and recruiting; the 



202 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

purchase of baggage animals, their disposition, certificates 
of service; history of battalions; diplomas; affiliations; 
honor committees and the irregular infantry forces that 
are in the service of the Federation. Besides what has 
been already mentioned with regard to the cavalry this 
Department has also charge of forages, the appointing 
of foragers, the buying of horses, their disposition in the 
regiments and auxiliary forces ; administration of justice 
in the army ; military colonies with their organization and 
administration, withdrawals, the placing of commanders 
and officers where they may be available and commisariat 
inspection ; and finally all that has reference to the recruit- 
ing officers in the States of the Kepublic. 

This department is composed of: 1 brigade general, 1 
infantry colonel, sub-inspector, 1 cavalry colonel, also sub- 
inspector, 1 infantry colonel the same, 1 lieutenant-colonel 
of infantry, 1 lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, 4 cavalry 
majors, 3 first infantry captains, 6 first cavalry captains, 4 
second infantry captains, 4 second cavalry ones, 1 sub- 
lieutenant, 1 ensign, 2 office boys. 

The Department of the Military Medical Body, has 
charge of all that comes within the scope of medicine, that 
is of the military Hospitals, Statistics and Military Veteri- 
nary Medicine. It is made up of 1 brigade general who is 
a medical surgeon and chief of the department, 1 lieu- 
tenant-colonel who is a veterinary surgeon, 1 lieutenant- 
colonel a medical surgeon, 1 first cavalry captain, 3 sub- 
lieutenants and 1 office boy. 

The Central Navy Department has under its inspection 
the national war vessels, together with the home and foreign 
merchant ships, the chief naval commands and the harbor 
masterships ; the numbers in the navy; the arsenals ; skids ; 
naval schools, navigation and cruising patents. 

The staff is formed of 1 ship captain, principal of De- 
partment and of the Body, 1 frigate captain, 1 sub-inspector 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 203 

of machines, 1 first engineer inspector, 3 snb-lieutenants, 
and 2 second marine corporals. 

GENERAL ORGANIZATION OE THE ARMY. 

IV. The army of the Mexican Republic is organized 
according to the following classifications: — 

I. Special Body of the Staff. 

II. Body of Engineers and Military College. 

III. Body of Artillery and Establishments for making 
war materials. 

IV. Infantry. 

V. Cavalry. 

VI. Military Medical Service. 

VII. Battalion of Invalids. 

VIII. Placement of commanders and officers in avail- 
able positions. 

IX. Tribunals and Military Police. 

THE SPECIAL BODY OF THE STAFF 

Was established by a decree dated the 24th of January, 
1879, and forms an entire department of the War Secre- 
taryship, on which it directly depends. This body has two 
chief purposes : 1st. The special service of the army in its 
various branches as far as regards organization and regula- 
tions. 2d. The formation of the Chart and the Military 
Statistics of the Republic, the drawing up of plans and the 
formation of routes. In order to enter the Special Body 
of the Staff it is necessary to have gone through the course 
of studies laid down in the programme of the Military 
College, including all the subjects specified in its regulations 
and this too with success. The pupils who are successful 
in the subjects laid down enter as lieutenants. Other 
officers who aspire to enter the Staff must pass an exami- 



204 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

nation before a committee of professors of the same college, 
assisted by a chief of the Staff. 

According to the clauses in the regulations of the Staff 
laid down on the 15th of September, 1879, promotions are 
generally given on account of seniority ; instruction and 
distinguished services being special motives for pre- 
ference. 

The officers who enter the body remain six months in 
the department in order to become acquainted with the 
organization and mobilization of the army as well as its 
various services. They afterwards pass on to the bodies 
of the army, the infantry and cavalry branches in order 
to go through their various exercises. They then engage in 
topographical works or enter the Staffs of Divisions and 
Brigades. During their practice they have to learn the 
service of armies on campaign. Captains, if they have 
been in the cavalry, are obliged to serve as lieutenants in 
the infantry and vice-versa. They are then commissioned 
in the topographical and geographical sections or have 
positions on the Staffs of Divisions and Brigades. Lieu- 
tenants are considered as student-officers of the Staff. 

In the Body the grades and services in other branches 
are forbidden and all must be in the effective service of 
the Staff. 

The officers of the army who enter the Staff hold priority 
according to the time of their entrance into it and they 
must be either lieutenants, captains or majors. They are 
exempted from drill in the infantry or cavalry, accord- 
ing as they have belonged to one or other branch of the 
service. They are not, however, freed from service in the 
department, topographical and geographical sections and 
the Staffs of Divisions and Brigades, nor from service in 
the other branch distinct from that to which they right- 
fully belong. The Staff is supplied from faculty men of 
great attainments and gives to the country an ever-mcreas- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 205 

ing number of scientific officers. It is composed of the 
following: 5 colonels, 10 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, 
22 first captains, 22 second captains, 48 lieutenants and 
2 cavalry majors in addition. 

BODY OF ENGINEERS AND MILITARY COLLEGE. 

The Body of Engineers was created by decree on the 
25th of January, 1879, and its regulations were issued on 
the 11th of July, 1883. In accordance with these latter 
the special service of the Body embraces: Permanent and 
transitory works of Fortification; attack and defense of 
towns and fortified positions ; repairing roads and difficult 
passes on the marches; the building of permanent bridges 
and the erection of works of art on the highways and rail- 
ways ; the placing in positions of defense strategical points 
or important military situations in territory occupied by 
the enemy; the building, guarding and repairing of the 
military edifice of the Republic and the drawing of the 
military plans ; as also works connected with the general 
Chart of the Republic, when necessary, in union with the 
Officers of the Special Body of the Staff. 

To enter the Body it is essential to have gone through 
with success the course of studies in the subjects laid down 
by the regulations of the Military College during the three 
periods of study. The pupils and officers of the college 
who have fulfilled these conditions enter as faculty lieuten- 
ants. The army officers who have not gone through their 
studies at the Military College and aspire to enter the Body 
have to undergo an examination. The officers of the Spe- 
cial Body of the Staff, the faculty artillery -men, and those 
of other branches of the army who have gone through their 
course at the college have not to be examined in order to 
enter the Body of Engineers. 

Battalion of Engineers. — In conformity with a decree of 



206 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the 30th 1 of June, 1888, this battalion is organized as fol- 
lows : 

The Staff: 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 first 
adjutant, 1 subadjutant, lieutenant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 
1 cornet corporal and 4 mule drivers. 

Four Companies — with 4 first captains, 4 second cap- 
tains, 24 lieutenants, 6 first sergeants, 36 second sergeants, 
73 corporals, 4 general guide corporals, 20 cornets, and 8 
drummers, 576 sappers and 8 mule drivers. The battalion 
has 32 mules. 

Each company is composed of 174 men who are divided 
into three parts of 43 mining sappers, 43 pontooniers and 
88 workmen. Four more men are employed in the detail 
labors of the company. 

All the troops of the battalion are equally instructed in 
the exercises of sapping, mining and pontooning ; and it is 
also laid down that in each company there shall be 50 men 
who are blacksmiths, locksmiths, coach-builders, carpen- 
ters, belt-makers, painters or gilders, their numbers vary- 
ing according to the necessities of the service ; 80 masons 
and 44 day laborers. 

In the works the sergeants act as overseers or foremen, 
the corporals as gaffers and the remaining troops as work- 
men. 

The general exercises of manceuvers, encampments and 
technichal labors are gone through once in the year. One- 
half of the battalion performs them in the months of 
November, December and January and the other half in 
the months of February, March and April, in order that 
the works may not be stopped. 

The Military College * depends on the Secretaryship of 
War and is the center of instruction for those youths who 
devote themselves to the military profession in the various 

* In the chapter "Public Instruction" this establishment is spoken of 
as the school of militaiy instruction. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 207 

branches of the army. It is considered the first institution 
of its kind that exists in the America of the Latin races. 

As it forms an integral part of the army it is organized 
as follows : The Staff is composed of a general director or 
colonel of the Army (professor), 1 subdirector, colonel 
or lieutenant-colonel of the Faculty, Staff of Engineers, 
Special Body of the Staff or Artillery (professor), 1 prin- 
cipal of details, major of the army, 1 adjutant, lieutenant 
in the army, 1 Army Medical Surgeon (professor), 1 
librarian, lieutenant of the army, 3 clerks for the direction, 
subdirection and majority respectively, 37 other professors, 
10 masters, 6 adjutants, 3 preparatory masters for Physics, 
Chemistry and Natural History, one first or second sergeant 
director of the band and 1 cornet corporaL 

Two Companies. — Each of them is composed of 1 first 
captain of the army, 1 second captain of engineers, Staff 
or Artillery, 1 first sergeant, 5 second sergeants, 10 cor- 
porals, 10 first-class pupils, 116 pupils and 4 bondsmen. 
Eath company is provided with 20 horses. — Servants : They 
are made up of 1 steward, 1 infirmarian, 1 veterinary rid- 
ing-master, 2 cooks, 3 errand porters, 1 door porter, 27 
waiters, 5 grooms and 2 scullions. 

From December, 1876, till the 30th of June, 1890, 530 
pupils completed their faculty studies in this college and 
passed into the service of the Special Staff into that of the 
Army staff, of the Engineer Staff, of the Faculty Staff of 
Artillery, of artillery battalions, of the navy, and of in- 
fantry and cavalry bodies. 

BODY OF ARTILLERY. 

This Body also depends directly on the War Secretary- 
ship and consists of the following : I. A Department an- 
nexed to the said Secretaryship ; IT. Four Artillery 
Battalions; III. A train Squadron; IV. Five fixed Com- 



208 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

panies ; V. The general Park ; VI. The Store-houses ; VII. 
The Arsenal ; VIII. The Foundry; IX. The Powder Fac- 
tory; X. The Theory and Practice School; XI. Five 
Foreign Store-houses. 

Elsewhere have been enumerated the duties, etc., belong- 
ing to the Artillery Department as well as the persons who 
form its staff. It should, however, be added that to insure 
prompt dispatch of business the Department is divided into 
two sections. The first, which is the general office of the 
Body, takes charge of all personal business ; and the second 
has the care and dispatch of the scientific business of the 
branch, the revision of supply accounts, armament and 
ammunition of all the Army bodies. 

Each of the Four Battalions of Artillery, on a peace foot- 
ing, in order to be able to serve three very small battle bat- 
teries, and one mountain one, has a staff and four companies. 
The staff consists of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 
an adjutant first captain, 1 subadjutant, lieutenant, 2 second 
captains, 2 lieutenants, 4 sublieutenants, 1 first trumpet 
sergeant, 2 first veterinary sergeants, 1 trumpet corporal 
and 4 saddle horses. Of the four companies, 3 are battle 
companies and one mountain, and their total amounts to 
356 men, 40 saddle horses and 200 mules. 

The Train Squadron, on a peace footing, is composed as 
follows: A staff, 1 major, 1 first captain, principal of the 
details, 1 adjutant lieutenant 2 veterinary first sergeants, 1 
trumpet corporal, 3 saddle horses and 2 companies with 9.8 
men, 20 horses and 200 mules. 

At present there is only one fixed company which is 
quartered at Veracruz and consists of 77 men, 2 horses and 
16 mules. The military depot of this place is under the 
charge of a store-keeper. The decree of the 1st of Octo- 
ber, 1886, which organized the Artillery Body lays down 
as the lowest height for artillerymen 1 metre, 68 centimetres 
and for train men 1 metre, 63 centimetres. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 209 



ESTABLISHMENTS EOR THE MAKING OF WAR MATERIALS. 

The four factory establishments which exists in the 
Federal District are counted as an integral part of the Artil- 
lery Body. They are The Store-house and general Park of 
Artillery and the National Arsenal, which are at Ciudadela. 
The National Foundry, situated in Molino del Key, and 
the National Powder Factory in the town of Santa Fe. 

Store-house. — This establishment has to receive and 
repair all war material, as well as to construct mountings, 
carriages, gear, equipment and all the objects for which it 
was instituted. It has a steam engine of 60 horse-power 
which works three machine-rooms; one for turnings of 
different kinds and sizes and a machine for brushing and 
chiselling iron ; one for wood-work and a third in which 
there are 3 brushing machines, a large radial auger, another 
small american one, a large tile for heavy pieces, a small 
double one, a universal polishing machine, another for 
engraving work, a pedal wheel for small pieces and 
pressure and two machines for making screw threads. 

There are also in the Store-house belt-makers, carpenters 
and locksmiths' rooms ; a forge with a rotatory ventilator, 
moved by the principal motor, a steam hammer of 5,000 
pounds force, and another machine for metal and wood- 
work. 

The establishment is divided into a Staff comprising 12 
men and into a Company of Workmen with 89 workshops. 

The General Park has under its charge the receivings 
keeping and distributing of the war materials, arms and 
ammunition. Its Staff and section of workmen are made 
up of 25 men. 

National Arsenal. — Here are made and repaired the 
portable arms and in it is manufactured the metallic 
ammunition. Although at various times the establishment 

U 



210 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

attempted the complete manufacture of arms, it was 
unable to succeed owing to the want of the necessary 
machinery and apparatus for its object. Hence it is that 
the so-called arsenal in Mexico is merely a work-shop for 
repairing and transforming fire-arms, making bayonets, 
sabres, axes and for the construction of metallic cart- 
ridges. 

In the November of 1877 the Congress voted 400,000 
dollars for the definite establishment of a national arsenal, 
capable of turning out a hundred guns per day ; but want 
of funds in the Treasury only permitted the erection of one 
capable of producing from fifty to sixty a day. The 
machinery of the repairing department was indeed reformed 
and the factory was supplied with special machinery and 
the necessary accessories for the production of guns and 
carbines. There is machinery for inlaying, cutting and 
heading tubes, for priming and perforating small barrels 
and for oiling; two automatic loading machines for boring 
gun-barrels ; rifling, grooving and screw-making machines ; 
two hand-polishing machines, another for opening cuttings, 
a wheel, a machine for brushing iron and another for 
cutting boxes. 

The factory contains 162 fixed machines which are put 
in motion by a powerful engine of 160 nominal horse 
power and with Galoway tubular boilers. 

There are steam generators in order that, in cases of 
unforeseen accidents to the principal boiler, the works may 
not be interrupted. The metallic cartridge department, 
which is in the same building as the factory, is furnished 
with new machines adapted to the workmanship of every 
calibre. In this room 15 different engines work in produc- 
ing cartridges of 11 m / m 9 (43) and among them is one 
called the Inspector which examines the cartridges, reject- 
ing those that are not ot the proper size as well as those 
that have not the full charge of powder. The room has 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 211 

also a special engine incase the principal engine should get 
out of order and stop. 

The machinery of the Arsenal can only make guns of 
43 (10.9) calibre and it has been estimated that in the 
establishment and with an expenditure of 180,000 dollars 
10,000 fire-arms at least could be made in a year and more 
than 400,000 cartridges. The arsenal has the same staff as 
the store-house. 

National Foundry for Arms. — This establishment has 
received special attention from the Government. The 
work-shops contain machinery suited to fulfill all the 
requirements of the service. In these rooms are made all 
the brass artillery; the zinc canister shot, leaden balls and 
all the pieces of metal necessary as war material, copper 
and brass rails are smelted and made into sheets for the 
construction of metallic cartridges. Projectiles of various 
calibres for land and sea artillery are molded and formed 
there. 

There is a hydraulic press for the compression of 
bronze ; and the pieces of iron, necessary for the other 
factories and for the artillery, are smelted and shaped. 
Besides this the establishment is supplied with machines 
for brushing and filing iron, for making screw-threads and 
boring, machines for striating projectiles, for boring, 
grooving and turning cannons. It has also a ventilator 
(compressed air) two criks, three parallel wheels and a 
hydraulic wheel which communicates movement to all 
the workshops. 

The foundry is managed by the following: A staff, with 
11 persons and a company, with 58 workmen. 

Poivder Factory. — In this establishment the army powder 
is manufactured and the ammunition of the artillery is 
loaded and made up. It has eight work-shops well 
supplied with all the apparatus suited to the process of 
manufacture and worked by a hydraulic wheel of cast iron. 
It is furnished too with a room for granulating and 



212 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

classifying the powder and another for glazing and 
dissecting, worked by hydraulic wheels of seven metres in 
diameter. 

The ventilator sends through an iron tubing a current of 
air which leaves all its moisture in various boxes containing 
chloride of calcium and thus dried it passes on to the 
perforated axles of the casks and therefrom draws the 
moisture from the powder and dries it. By this process 
the dangers of explosions are greatly lessened. 

The staff of the establishment consists of forty-one 
persons. 

MILITARY SCHOOLS. 

The education of the army has always been regarded 
by the government of Mexico as a real necessity, and 
at all times they have endeavored to foster it by every 
possible means. On the 27th of September, 1846, the 
establishment of a school for primary education in the 
capital of the Eepublic was decreed. Its purpose was to 
organize the army and to educate a portion of the men 
whom the States sent to fill up vacancies. This school for 
a long time gave excellent results. 

Later on night classes were established to instruct the 
troops in reading, writing and the chief rules in arithmetic. 
Military libraries were also set up, ordinary gymnastic and 
riding schools, practical schools for the infantry, cavalry, 
artillery and engineers and offices for the practice of tele- 
graphy by the army officers. 

The re-establishment of academies of instruction for the 
various branches of the army, among all the bodies when 
they are in garrison, was initiated and approved of in 1877. 
The teaching is carried on by means of oral lessons and by 
theses, proposed by one or other of the academies. The 
conferences take place every week and on the different 
days of each week, in turns tor the effective Generals 
and graduates, the commanders and officers of engineers, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 213 

the commanders and officers of artillery, of infantry and 
cavalry. The academies were extended to the forces of 
the various branches of the army which are outside 
of the Federal District. The ordinance of 1882 laid 
down that the colonels or commanders of battalions or 
regiments should establish military academies in order to 
perfect the instruction of all classes of the army. It enu- 
merates the subjects to be studied during the three annual 
terms into which it ordains that the academy courses 
should be divided. In addition to these academies the 
battalions and regiments receive the instructions in con- 
formity with their respective regulations, that is, with 
regard to exercises and tactical evolutions as applied on 
land, the management of their weapons, instruction in tar- 
get-shooting, instruction about security in the field, school 
of orientation, exercises proper for battle, and instructions 
in camping and making trenches when in the fields. The 
Theory and Practice School was created in order that those 
officers who had not completely gone through their studies 
at the military college might have a course in this school 
of those subjects which are essential in order to belono- to 
the Faculty Body of Artillery. The title is obtained by 
passing the proper general examination. The sergeants of 
the body also receive the theory and practice instructions 
necessary to fulfill their duties. The War Secretaryship 
appoints the professors from among the commanders and 
officers who are considered most fitted to fill the. post, 
whilst the artillery establishments supply the necessary 
elements for the practical teaching. The persons who 
manage the school are one lieutenant colonel of the Faculty 
Staff, director; one major, subdirector; one lieutenant, 
adjutant ; one first sergeant, clerk : one second sergeant, 
door porter and one porter. The School of Military 
Bands was established in the city of Mexico in the year 1879. 
Its object is to bring into uniformity, in the various corps 



214 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of the infantry and cavalry, the military trials and move- 
ments ordained to be gone through. The artillery battal- 
ions, regiments and brigades send two bandsmen to the 
school during the hours' of instruction and as soon as the 
cornets, drummers and trumpeteers are sufficiently taught, 
they return to their respective bodies, and in their place 
two others are sent, and so on in succession. The bands- 
men receive the necessary instruction for the knowledge of 
the notes of music. The staff of the school is made up 
of one director, lieutenant colonel of cavalry and one band- 
master, a musician. 

INFANTRY. 

The infantry is organized in battalions numbered from 
one to twenty-eight. Each one of these, on a peace 
footing, consists of a Staff and four companies. They all 
receive the same instruction and wear the same uniform. 

The regulations adopted for army manceuvers were put in 
force by virtue of a circular issued on the 3d of November, 
1887. 

The twenty-eight battalions have also four battalion 
squares as reinforcements in order to pass from the peace 
footing to the war footing. These squares can double the 
number of their effective soldiers in case of mobilization and 
it is possible also in a short time to double the number of 
battalions existing in time of peace. 

Each battalion, on a peace footing, has the following 
organization given it by decree on the 1st of July, 1889 : 
1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, first 
captain, 1 sub-adjutant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 1 cornet 
corporal, 4 mule drivers, 4 first captains, 4 second cap- 
tains, 12 lieutenants, 12 sub-lieutenants, 4 first sergeants, 
32 second sergeants, 72 corporals, 20 cornets, and 464 
soldiers. There are also 32 mules. The infantry squares 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 215 

are each organized as follows: 1 colonel, 1 major, 1 ad- 
jutant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 1 cornet corporal, 4 cap- 
tains, 4 lieutenants, 4 sub-lieutenants, 2 first sergeants, 9 
second sergeants, 19 corporals, 10 cornets and 76 soldiers. 
There are also a company stationed atEnsenada de Todos 
Santos, a battalion of Sharpshooters of Cruces and the 
companies of Sierra Gorda, making up altogether 23 officers 
and 434 troops. 

CAVALRY. 

The cavalry is organized in regiments numbering 13 and 
each of them comprising a Staff, and 4 squadrons. As 
reinforcements it has regiment squares, but which are at 
present replaced by the first and second bodies of cavalry 
auxiliaries. 

Each regiment is composed of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant 
colonel, 1 major, 1 first adjutant, 1 subadjutant ensign, 1 first 
trumpeter sergeant, 1 first sergeant, beltmaker, 2 first ser- 
geants, veterinary surgeons, 1 trumpet corporal, 4 first 
captains, 4 second captains, 48 corporals, 12 trumpeteers, 
320 soldiers, 4 mule drivers, 4 boys and 421 horses. Each 
Body of the Auxiliaries is organized thus : 1 colonel, 1 
lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 first adjutant, 1 carrier, 1 first 
sergeant, chief trumpeteer, 1 first sergeant, belt-maker, 1 
first sergeant, veterinary surgeon, 1 trumpet corporal, 2 first 
captains, 2 second captains, 6 lieutenants, 6 ensigns, 2 first 
sergeants, 12 second sergeants, 26 corporals, 6 trumpeteers, 
192 soldiers, 4 mule drivers, 4 boys and 250 horses. 

Besides the regiments and auxiliary bodies already men- 
tioned there are the First Body Countrymen of Tamaulipas, 
which consists of 1 colonel, 1 major, 2 first corporals, 2 
second corporals and 200 guards and the Escort of the 
Geographical Exploring Commission consisting of 8 officers 
and 120 men. 



216 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



THE MILITARY MEDICAL BODY. 

This body was organized by decree on the 25th of Jan- 
uary, 1879, and decrees for its reform were issued on the 
2d of March, 1880, and on the 28th of June, 1881, and the 
3d of July, 1882. 

The health service for the Army and National Navy is or- 
ganized by regulations published on the 22d of April, 1880. 
According to these the military health service, which has 
under its charge the Military Medical Body, looks after the 
qualification of physical fitness, the preservation of health, 
the development and strength of the men in the army; 
the cure of their diseases and advising the dismissal of those 
who by disease are of no use for the service. To it belongs 
also the duty of caring for the healing, improving and ex- 
amining of the horses and mules as well as the obligation of 
bringing under the notice of the Government or military 
authorities all that regards the different branches of the 
sanitary service. 

For the care of wounded or sick soldiers there are three 
kinds of military hospitals established, namely, fixed, divis- 
ional and temporary. The divisional change from place to 
place along with the general quarters of the divisious of 
the army. The temporary hospitals are for cases of epi- 
demic, or any exigency, large union of troops, etc. In 
places where no military hospitals exist there are infirma- 
ries in the barracks, so that in them the medical officers in 
the respective corps can attend to those who have only slight 
infirmities. The Military Medical Body is composed of 
doctors of the School of Medicine of Mexico who have both 
been pupils in the practical Medical Military School and 
who on receiving their titles in the National School of Med- 
icine serve in the different bodies of the army as majors, 
being at the same time medical surgeons. Those doctors, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 217 

who have not been in the Medical Military School, if they 
enter the army do so with the rank of captain. 

In order to be a candidate for a position in the Body, in 
its Faculty Staff, it is necessary to have received in the 
class of aspirants the medical military education which is 
given in the Military Hospital of Instruction. Moreover, 
in order to be admitted as an aspirant it is essential to be 
physically suited to follow the military profession — to be 
a student of medicine or pharmacy or to have gone through 
at least the third professional year in the course for medi- 
cine and the first year of the pharmacy course; to have 
served at least one year in the class of meritorious pupils 
and to be suited, in the judgment of the director of the 
establishment, for the faculty service ; to have displayed 
in the judgment of the same director, morality and good 
conduct; to engage to serve during three years in the class 
of army medical surgeons. 

For the Ambulance service those soldiers are admitted as 
officers who can show the best certificates of service whilst 
the ordinary ambulance men must have been voluntarily 
enlisted and it is necessary that the superiors of the second 
infirmarians, besides having the neeessary physical capacity 
must also be able to read and write. 

The ambulance service is under charge of Army Health 
Body and has for its special object the assistance and curing 
of sick or wounded soldiers during campaign operations 
and taking them to the hospital. These duties are fulfilled 
by the sanitary men assigned to the various divisions and 
by the litter-bearers of the different army corps. They 
are supplied with sanitary materials and the beasts of burden 
assigned by law for their purposes. 

The ambulance officers have the direction of their respect- 
ive sections with the same kind of duties as those laid 
down by the ordinance for the rank and file officers. They 
give the necessary military instruction to the ambulance 



218 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

men before they receive instructions for the management 
of the letters, drugs, barks, stores and instructions about 
the management of their animals and harness to the train- 
men. It is the duty of the faculty officers to stimulate the 
ambulance men who are under them to the practice of sur- 
gery in small matters in order that they may be more capable 
of fulfilling their duties in the hospitals and in the field. 

Every corps has its doctor. The Military Medical Body 
taken altogether is composed of two generals, 1 chief of 
the Department, a doctor, as has been already said,* and 
the other director of the Military Hospital of Instruction, 
who is likewise Director of the Practical School, 3 colonels, 
2 inspectors and the other Sub-director of the Military 
Hospital of Instruction ; 19 lieutenant colonels of whom 
seven are professors in the Practical School and at the same 
time fixed doctors in the Military Hospital of Instruction, 
nine are Directors of the fixed Hospitals of the Kepublic, 
two act as secretaries for the chief of the Medical Depart- 
ment! and the last is Administrator of the Hospital of 
Instruction; 56 majors, medical surgeons of whom forty- six 
are employed in the sanitary service of the battalions and 
regiments and ten occupy the posts of Subdirectors in the 
fixed Hospitals ; and lastly twelve first captains also em- 
ployed in the corps of the army. 

The Pharmaceutical service is made up of the following: 
1 druggist principal, resident in the Military Hospital of 
Instruction, Mexico ; 2 majors, 4 1st captains, and 9 2d 
captains for the service of the fixed Hospitals. 

The Veterinary service consists of majors, first captains 
and second captains employed for the artillery regiments 
and battalions. 

The Navy Medical service has one major, medical 
surgeon, for each of the vessels in the National Fleet. 

* Page 203. t ■*#. Id - 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 219 

For the care of wounded and sick soldiers there are 10 
permanent military hospitals established, whilst there is a 
varying number of temporary ones. Those that are per- 
manent are built in Mexico, Veracruz, Puebla, Guadalajara, 
San Luis Potosi, Tampico, Tepic, Mazatlan, Matamoros, 
and Monterrey. 

The Hospital in Mexico, which also undertakes the military 
medical education, has a sta ft' composed of 1 brigade Gen- 
eral, who is director, 1 colonel, subdirector, 7 lieutenant 
colonels, professors, and 1 major, all of whom are medical 
surgeons, 12 lieutenants of the Navy, 1 lieutenant colonel, 
chemist and druggist, 1 administrator and 1 commissary, 
the first holding the rank of lieutenant colonel and the 
latter that of first captain, and 1 assistant commissary. 
All the Hospitals in the Kepublic have a like staff composed 
of a Director lieutenant-colonel, a Subdirector, major, and 
both of them medical surgeons ; a chemist and druggist and 
an Administrator, first captains, and a commissary, second 
captain. The Hospitals of Tepic, Mazatlan, Monterrey, and 
Matamoros have each a staff composed of 1 major who is a 
medical surgeon and the Director, 1 second captain, chemist 
and druggist, 1 second captain, administrator, and 1 lieu- 
tenant, commissary. The Hospital of Tampico has a 
lieutenant colonel, a major who is subdirector and both are 
medical surgeons ; a second captain who is a chemist and 
druggist ; a second captain who is administrator, and a 
commissary who is a lieutenant. The Merida Hospital has 
assigned to it a Major who is a medical surgeon, and a 
commissary administrator who is a lieutenant. 

The Company of Infirmarians consists of 1 first infantry 
captain, 2 infantry lieutenants, 2 sublieutenants, 15 first 
sergeants, watchers, 18 second sergeants, higher infirmaries, 
39 corporals, first infirmarians and 100 soldiers, second 
infirmarians. 

The Ambulance Train is formed of 1 infantry lieutenant, 



220 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

1 infantry sublieutenant, 5 second sergeants, overseers, 18 
mule-drivers and 60 carriers. 

The Medical Military Practice School. — On the 22d of 
April, 1880, this School was established in the Military 
Hospital of Mexico. In it the pupils go through a course 
of internal and external clinics, and acquire a knowledge 
of surgical instruments and apparatus and of the way t® use 
them, and of the means for transporting the wounded; they 
also study urgent surgery; military hygiene, legal medicine 
as far as it regards the Penal Code and military legislation ; 
therapeutics as applied to the making up of receipts in 
hospitals and campaign drug stores, and chemical analysis 
and especially of organic products. 

Lately a new kind of Ordinance has been laid down in 
order to teach those who belong to the corporation a know- 
ledge of the duties of every rank in the service and the 
general points of this service. 

Conferences held about each of these subjects form 
another course at the end of the college year and all of 
them together constitute the subjects taught in the Medical 
Military course which is obligatory for every Medical 
Surgeon in the Army. 

These conferences were begun on the 15th of January, 
1880. In certain subjects the lessons are oral and last at 
least half an hour. They are, in the same way as the 
courses, either daily or weekly, or they may be held 2 or 3 
times a week. 

At the end of the college year the conferences are closed 
and eight days afterwards the examinations of the meri- 
torious and aspiring pupils begin. 

The aspirants among other duties have to accompany the 
doctor who is their immediate superior on his visit and to 
inform him of the condition of the sick or wounded ; to 
take his orders, make up the receipts and diet billets, etc. 

In the service of the health watch, a d.xxiy which they 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS^ 221 

undertake in turns, they must have a knowledge of all the 
sick and wounded in order to be able to prescribe for them 
in cases of urgency ; they have also to take the first pre- 
cautions, feel the pulses and notice the temperature, etc. ; 
they have besides to examine the corpses before these are 
taken to the amphitheater in order to be sure that the 
death is real and they are obliged to give a verbal account 
to the vigilance doctor of what has occurred during their 
watch. 

The meritorious pupils have charge, in the rooms, of the 
nippers and surgical instruments which their respective doc- 
tor assigns to them, and receive instructions in the form 
which he prescribes to make them aspirants. 

The number of pupils who are passing through the vari- 
ous classes is 25 ; many of them with the object of going 
through all their studies there have asked to be given 
places as meritorious pupils. The chief instruction given 
consists of the technical part of a military doctor's duty. 
The establishment is carried on with perfect regularity, and 
the pupils have shown at their examinations a real advance . 
Many of them have received and have been employed in 
high posts. 

The Veterinary Service. — Consists of 4 majors, veterinary 
surgeons, 4 first captains ditto, 4 second captains ditto, and 
2 lieutenants aspirants. The staff is divided among the 
different places where the regiments or battalions are sta- 
tioned in order that the horses may be kept in the best 
condition for service. 



THE POLICE BODY OF THE ARMY. 

A decree of the 25th of January, 1879, created a com- 
pany of horse police for the general preservation of order 
in the army when in the field, in garrison, in cantonments, 
in camp, etc. It laid down as indispensable qualifications 



222 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

for being admitted into the company the following : to 
have been an old soldier of the army, to have no bad marks 
for civil and military conduct, to know how to read and 
write, to be of a fair height and to have a strong constitu- 
tion. 

The duration of service when a person is enlisted in this 
body is four years, but when this term is completed it may be 
prolonged at the expressed wish of the person. The new 
term of service which he agrees to is set forth in his regis- 
ter and is obligatory. 

By a decree of the 12th of June, 1885, the squadron of 
police was called the Police Body of the Army, by which 
name it is at present known ; it was also placed under the 
Cavalry Department of the War Minister in acordance 
with a decree dated the 3d of September of the same year, 
1885. 

In conformity with the regulations laid down for the 
body and which were dated the 5th of May, 1879, the police 
in times of peace have two ordinary services of security to 
perform, namely, to keep watch, over the fortified places, gar- 
risons and cantonments and to guard the environs of these 
within a radius not exceeding half a day's march. For the 
first duty two men at least are told off whilst for the second 
a body of five is appointed. 

The police service in the army embraces provost service 
properly so-called, convoy and baggage service, the guard- 
ing of prisoners and the army requisites. 

The provost-general exercises jurisdiction over the whole 
army and the provosts over the divisions or brigades to 
which they are attached. This jurisdiction covers all that 
relates to crimes, transgressions, and acts of opposition to 
the laws committed in territory occupied by the army, the 
flanks and the rear guard, in a word as far as the action 
of the troops extends. 

It is the duty of the provosts to protect the inhabitants 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 223 

of the country against pillage or any other violence and to 
fulfill in the same way as the military police the duties 
of judicial guardianship as soon as they become aware of a 
crime or transgression. 

The police have among their other functions a continual 
and repressive watchfullness over crimes in the military 
orders, over those which are committed by persons who 
are subject to the laws of war, and they exercise a like 
surveillance over the men who accompany or serve the 
army in the territory which is declared to be in a state of 
war or siege, and in the field, or when individual guarantees 
have been constitutionally declared suspended. 

Beyond these cases the police, as far as the inhabitants 
of the country are concerned, can only bring the crimes to 
light and apprehend the delinquents in default of the ordi- 
nary police, and they are bound to hand them over to the 
authority competent to deal with them. 

The police are empowered to render extraordinary serv- 
ices for the suppression of smugglers, when such services 
are required by the customs administrators in places where 
they are stationed, and for the protection of the branches 
of the public treasury when they are threatened with rob- 
bery and for the protection of railways or public buildings. 

The army police body is composed of the following: 1 
colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1st cap- 
tain, 1 sub-adjutant, ensign, 1 first sergeant, 1 first ser- 
geant, harness-maker, 1 trumpeteer corporal, 2 boys, 4 
mule-drivers, 2 first captains, 2 second captains, 6 lieuten- 
ants, 6 ensigns, 2 first sergeants, 12 second sergeants, 24 
corporals, 6 trumpeteers, and 226 gendarmes. 

NATIONAL BATTALION OF INVALIDS. 

This force consists of those soldiers who have retired 
from the army but who still exercise the right which the 



224 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

law grants them of entering this battalion because they 
have been incapacitated either in battle or in a campaign, 
but without losing their right to receive their pay for their 
time of service. 

Their duties are passive ones and they are employed for 
giving orders in certain public offices whilst in others they 
act as guards. The Battalion of Invalids is formed of 2 
chiefs, 11 officers and 161 men. The organization of this 
body was decreed on the 25th of January, 1879. 

THE RESERVE OP COMMANDERS AND OFFICERS. 

This is a body composed of those commanders and offi- 
cers who are in excess of the number required for the various 
commands and regulations made in order to organize the 
army. As these men have lent their services to the Nation, 
the Government in justice towards them attends to their 
support with the least possible detriment to the exchequer. 
They are employed in certain positions in fortified places 
and form a reserve to complete the squares in times of war. 

On the 28th of January, 1885, it was resolved that the 
commanders and officers of the reserve should attend the 
classes of the Theory and Practice School of the army, 
where they might study the regulations for the employ- 
ment of troops in the field, and gain some knowledge of 
transitory fortifications, constitutional law, the law of 
nations, and other subjects. 

On the 30th of June, 1890, the body consisted of 1 
Brigade General, 695 commanders and 464 officers. 

MILITARY TRIBUNALS AND POLICE. 

Before the General Ordinance of the Army was put in 
force on the 10th of January, 1883, the Administration of 
justice and military laws were regulated in accordance with 




GENERAL OF DIVISION PEDRO HINOJOSA. 
Secretary of War. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 225 

the law of the 20th of January, 1869, which establishes 
military juries. The want of a penal Code on this matter 
was greatly felt, for the soldiers were subjected to the 
penalties laid down in the reformed Ordinance in 1852, and 
many of these punishments were in direct opposition to the 
principles of the Charter of 1857. Moreover the judges in 
the military order were irresponsible and a tribunal was 
needed to revise their proceedings and thus give guarantees 
of receiving justice to those who should be tried. 

When the new Code of military justice was published 
and its new principle adopted the organization of the 
tribunals and the procedure of trials were entirely changed. 

The administration of military justice still remained 
under the charge of the provosts as well as the ordinary 
Councils of War and also the extraordinary and in addition 
to these the councils of the Superior Court of military 
justice. 

The Juries of Instruction, the Councils of War and the 
Supreme Court of Justice began their duties on the 1st of 
January, 1883, in conformity with the law of the 6th of 
December, 1882. The magistrates and other employes 
of the court were appointed on the 30th of December of 
the preceding year. 

From the very beginning certain inconveniences in the 
application of the new Code presented themselves both by 
reason of the new procedure employed and by reason of the 
fresh interpretations which were given to certain precepts 
of the law. 

The Secretaryship of War promulgated various regula- 
tions in order to smooth over these difficulties and to facili- 
tate the fair and prompt administration of justice. The 
inconveniences, however, became so frequent and grave that 
it was found necessary to modify the law and bring it into 
conformity with actual experience. Accordingly a com- 
mission was appointed to revise the Code which was in 

15 



226 THti RICHES OF MEXICO 

force and to present the President of the Republic the 
plan of reforms which in its judgment ought to be sub- 
stituted. The commission in its innovations has suc- 
ceeded in giving to the accused all the guarantees which 
modern rights demand and above all the fullest possible 
liberty as regards himself and his defenders. 

MILITARY TRIBUNALS THEIR ORGANIZATION AND COM- 
PETENCY. 

IV. The administration of Military Justice, in con- 
formity with the latest changes made in the Code covering 
this subject of September 16th, 1892, is under the charge 
of : 1st, the Military Heads authorized to issue orders of 
procedure; 2nd, the Ordinary Military Courts; 3d, the 
Extraordinary Military Courts or Councils; 4th, the 
Supreme Military Court. 

These tribunals only pass upon criminal actions arising 
from crimes coming under their judrisdiction ; the civil 
action resulting from these crimes, is governed by the 
provisions of ordinary legislation, drawn before the ordinary 
tribunals, and they have no authority to pass sentence until, 
in the order of military procedure, executive sentence has 
been pronounced. 

The military heads above referred to are : the General- 
in-Chief of a body of troops, the Generals of divisions, 
brigades, or columns which operate individually ; the 
Chiefs of Zone; the Chief Commanders of the States; the 
Military Commanders ; the chiefs in command of troops 
who are somewhat removed from their superior officers. 

With the exception of these latter, the military chiefs 
convoke and assemble the ordinary and extraordinary 
councils of war, direct and pass upon, with the aid of a 
lawyer, the processes, provided the crimes to be passed 
upon are such that the average penalty assigned by law 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 227 

does not exceed eleven months of arrest, or fines up to the 
second class; they puss upon actions taken against sergeants 
and captains for crimes whose punishment is simple dismis- 
sal from the service, and also, in the same manner, try 
causes, inflicting the punishment which the law requires. 

Ordinary Councils of War. — There is a permanently es- 
tablished tribunal of these in the general headquarters in 
each military zone ordivisionand in some military provinces, 
and two in the Military Commandant's Department of the 
Federal District. They are composed of seven proprietory 
voters and a number of supplementary voters who supply 
the accidental absences of the former. One and the others 
are appointed by the Secretary of War from among the 
head chiefs and captains of the army ; the supplementary 
appointments may be made in certain cases by the respect- 
ive military chief. 

The rank of the persons composing these councils must 
be equal to or greater than the rank of the persons upon 
whom process has been served, and if the latter should be 
a General of Division, and there are not the requisite num- 
ber of Generals of this grade or rank, the Council of War 
will be made lip of from among the Generals of Brigade. 
The citizens who have been served upon shall be regarded 
as members of the troops, and if there should be any mili- 
tary person accused conjointly, the graduation of this one 
will determine the manner in which the Council shall be 
formed. 

The voter of the highest class shall preside as President 
of the Council, and where there are more than one of this 
class, the oldest shall preside, while the voter of lesser rank 
shall act as Secretary. 

The ordinary Councils of War pass upon military crimes 
or misdemeanors which the law does not place under the 
jurisdiction of the military heads of which mention has been 
made, or to the Extraordinary Councils of War; and, in 



228 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 

time of war, they shall consider crimes which, by virtue of 
the legal ordinances of the State in which they are located, 
come under their jurisdiction. 

Extraordinary Councils of War. - — These are composed 
of seven military officials of the rank required by that of 
the accused, as in the case of the Ordinary Councils of War, 
but the officers of the company to which the accused person 
belongs shall not be permitted to form part of these Councils. 

These Councils shall have the power to pass upon the fol- 
lowing crimes: desertion in face of the enemy ; sedition 
in face of the enemy, at the moment of combat or at two 
days' march distant, whether facing the enemy, or in re- 
treat ; treason, unless this consists of placing prisoners of 
war at liberty, or in protecting their escape in face of the 
enemy during a battle or during retreat ; rebellion in face 
of the enemy, either while marching against or retreating 
from same, while being pursued at less than two days' 
march distant therefrom, or in a besieged or blockaded 
place ; espionage committed under the circumstances men- 
tioned for the crime of rebellion ; violence committed 
against a superior officer ; cowardice ; crimes against the 
existence, security or preservation of the army, or its 
belongings, committed in face of the enemy or in a besieged 
or blockaded place, provided the penalty determined by law 
shall be capital punishment. 

In order to determine the competency of the Extraordi- 
nary Council of War, the following circumstances must 
exist : that the accused persons shall be apprehended in 
fraganti; that not more than 24 hours shall have transpired 
between the commission of the crime and the passing of 
sentence, at the simple lapse of this period without the 
guilty person being tried, nullifies the jurisdiction of the 
Extraordinary Council, and the consideration of the case 
shall be assigned to the Ordinary Council ; that the failure 
to immediately apprehend the criminal, implies a serious 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 229 

danger to the existence and preservation of the troops, or 
the success of military operations. 

The designation of the individuals who shall compose the 
Ordinary Councils of War, shall be made by the War 
Department in vigorous succession, from amongst those 
comprised in a list which shall be made up and published 
annually, and in which shall be included, in conformity with 
an ancient order, the names of the generals and other chiefs 
of the army, who, having no other commissions in the 
service, shall be eligible to discharge the duties of members 
of the Council. 

The members who shall compose the Extraordinary 
Council, shall be selected from a list made up by the chief, 
whose duty it shall be to convoke a Council of War, in 
which shall appear the names of all the military officials 
of the required rank who may be subject to its orders and 
disposable for this service. In this list shall be included 
even those who are not in active service. 

Supreme Military Court. — This tribunal shall be com- 
posed of eight magistrates, of which the first five shall be 
military officers and the other three lawyers, and six super- 
numeraries, four of whom shall be military officers, and 
two lawyers. All of these shall be appointed by the Chief 
Executive of the Nation. 

The first regular magistrate, who must be a General of 
Division, shall be the President of the Court, and the 
second, who shall be of equal rank, or active General of 
Brigade, shall be the Vice-President. 

In order to be a military magistrate, it is necessary that 
the individual possess the permanent rank of active Gen- 
eral of the Armv ; and in order to be a consulting masis- 
trate, the person must be a Mexican citizen in the exercise 
of his rights, be 35 years of age, and a lawyer for at least 
10 y ears, as required by law. These possess the character 
of actual and permanent Generals of the Army. 



230 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

For the proper dispatch of the business which corre- 
sponds to it, the Court shall sit in full tribunal or divided 
into two courts with the requisite secretaries and notaries. 
The full tribunal shall be composed of all the magistrates, 
both regular and supernumerary, and shall not hold ses- 
sion with less than seven members. The first Court shall 
consist of five magistrates, of which two shall be lawyers, 
and the second Court, of three, one of whom must be a 
lawyer. 

Each of the courts shall have a chief officer. The secre- 
taries, with the exception of the one pertaining to the 
second court, shall possess the title of colonels of cavalry ; 
the secretary of the latter shall have the title of Colonel of 
Infantry. The chief official and the notary of the first court 
shall possess the title of Colonel of Cavalry, and the chief 
official of the second court that of Lieutenant Colonel of In- 
fantry. These functionaries are also appointed by the Chief 
Executive of the Nation. The principal attributes of the full 
tribunal are as follows, to suggest to the War Department 
the necessary modifications regarding military legislation 
and the appropriate instruction for the proper administra- 
tion of justice; pass opinions upon matters of law as 
directed by the judicial functionaries of the military order, 
try cases as to the responsibility of the magistrates of the 
court, the solicitor general or their assistants, military 
chiefs authorized to dictate orders of procedure, and 
counsel ; reverse the sentences pronounced by the extraor- 
dinary counsels of war as to responsibility and as to the 
nullity in certain cases of competent jurisdiction ; reverse 
the decisions of the military chiefs in order not to dictate 
the order of procedure. 

The first Court shall pass upon the legal disputes which 
may arise between the military tribunals of the first class ; 
of matters invading appeal, of appeal refused and revision 
in cases determined by law, of the excuse of military chiefs 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 231 

in processes being or which have been passed upon by the 
same court. 

The second Court shall pass upon the pleas of the military- 
chiefs in cases which are being or have been passed upon 
by said Court ; also of the application for revision, whose 
consideration does not belong to the Full Tribunal or to the 
first Court. 

Instructing Judges. — For the proper formation of trials, 
there have been located Judges of Instruction in every local- 
ity where permanent counsels of war have been established 
and where such do not exist, or where it may be necessary 
to substitute a judge by reason of the rank of the accused 
person, in which case a special appointment shall be made. 

The permanent judges shall be colonels or lieutenant 
colonels of the army, and are appointed by the War Depart- 
ment; and the others who must be generals, chiefs or 
officials of equal or higher rank than that of the accused, 
shall be appointed by the military chief whose intervention 
may be necessary in the suit or trial. 

The Instructing Judges perform their judicial functions 
with secretaries appointed also by the War Department 
and act under the direction of the Military Chief upon 
whom they depend. 

Counsellors. — These functionaries study and consider 
the questions of right which, in the administration of jus- 
tice, the Military Chiefs having the right to determine the 
final action against the parties responsible for the com- 
mission of the crimes, may indicate. They are appointed 
at the will of the executive, and must be at least 30 years 
of age, five years a lawyer and Mexican citizens in the full 
enjoyment of their rights. 

In these localities where permanent Councils of War 
have been established, there is a counsellor attached to the 
respective Military Chief, with the title of Colonel of 
Cavalry. The Counsellors attached to the chiefs in whose 



232 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

territorial jurisdiction there is no permanent Council of 
War possess the character of Lieutenant Colonels of the 
same class. In the military headquarters of the Federal 
District there are four Counsellors attached to the four 
courts of permanent instruction which exist therein. 

Defenders. — The defenders in the trial subject to 
military jurisdiction may be freely named by the cul- 
prits, from among the persons who may or may not 
belong to the military class. Generals are prohibited 
from defending members of the army of rank inferior 
to themselves. Outside of such cases the defenders 
are appointed by the War Department from among the 
officials and chiefs of the army ; only those who are ex- 
pected to act in conjunction with the military court, are not 
required to belong to it; it is sufficient that they are Mexi- 
can citizens in the exercise of their rights, that they are 
over 25 years of age and have been lawyers for at least two 
years. 

The official defenders are prohibited from receiving any 
remuneration from their clients. 

There are in the military command of the Federal Dis- 
trict four official defenders, one for each court of instruc- 
tion that may there exist. In the Military Court there are 
two with the title of Colonels of Cavalry. 

THE COUET OF INQUIRY ( MINISTEEIO PUBLICO). 

This court has been established for the purpose of aiding 
in the administration of justice and securing proper com- 
pliance with the rulings of the Tribunals of Justice, it is 
aided in its work by the judicial Military Police. 

The Court of Inquiry is composed of the following 
persons : the General Military Solicitor ; two auxiliaries of 
the latter, two agents attached to each of the permanent 
courts of instruction, and the others who must intervene in 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 233 

the trials which are presided over by the non-permanent 
instructing judges and who are appointed by the authority 
who order the legal action. The solicitor and other agents 
are appointed by the President of the Republic. 

The Solicitor General takes the rank of permanent gen- 
eral of Brigade of the Army, his auxilary agents that of 
Colonels of Cavalry, and the agents attached to the courts 
of instruction, that of Majors, at least. 

The same qualifications are necessary for the post of 
solicitor as are required for that of magistrate of the court ; 
for the post of auxiliary agent of the solicitor the same 
qualifications are required as for that of Counsellor. The 
other agents must be twenty-one years of age, and, among 
other requisites, must possess aptitude for discharging the 
duties intrusted to them at the pleasure of the authority 
who must appoint them. 

MILITARY JUDICIAL POLICE. 

The object of this body is to assist the military tribunals 
in the investigation of crimes, the collection of proof and 
the discovery of the delinquents. It works through the 
medium of provosts, through the military police, through 
the officials in guard of stations, through the officers of the 
week,, captains of barracks within their respective quarters, 
through the permanent judges of instruction, through the 
majors in command of stations, or chiefs of superior rank, 
or their assistants, and through the Court of Inquiry. 
These functionaries may, in case of necessity, request the 
assistance of the militia and that of the municipal police. 

CRIMES, MISDEMEANORS AND PENALTY. 

The existing military penal code makes the following 
classification of military crimes and misdemeanors : 

1st. Crimes against Military Duty. — Voluntary inutil- 



234 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

ity for the purpose of withdrawing from the service, 
incorrigible conduct, absence from the reviews of the 
battalion or regiment, disobedience, insubordination, insults 
or violence directed against sentinels, guards or safeguards, 
threatenings, undue deliberation, evil intentions, sedition, 
infraction of sentinel's duties, offenses committed by 
prisoners of war, flight of these or of military prisoners, 
abandonment of posts or of military points, commissions of 
the service, command or arrests, unnecessary capitulation, 
cowardice or puerile acts committed through same, deser- 
tion, duels, infraction of military duties not specified in the 
Code. 

2nd. Crimes Committed in the Exercise of Military 
Duties or by reason of same, drunkenness, revelation of 
secrets pertaining to the service, falseness, simulation or 
concealment of any personal circumstances, falsification in 
the lists of soldiers, animals, marches or forage, false inform- 
ation, abuse of authority, abuse in the matter of lodgment or 
in the acquisition of means of transport, maltreatment of 
prisoners or wounded soldiers, violence against incarcerated 
prisoners, outrages and offenses against the military and 
civil police, violence against persons in general, pillage 
appropriation of booty, despoliation of wounded prisoners 
or corpses, destruction or devastation of property in gen- 
eral, peculation and exactions, smuggling, rebellion, treason, 
usurpation of authority, commission or functions of the ser- 
, vice, of the name of superior of uniform, of insignias or of 
offices. 

3d. Crimes Against the Existence, Security or Preserva- 
tion of the Army or its Belongings. — False alarm, secretion, 
giving away or destruction of the property belonging to 
the army, espionage, incitement for the purpose of 
serving the enemy. 

4th. Offenses Committed in the Administration of Mili- 
tary Justice or on accountof same, offenses on the part of the 



AN© ITS INSTITUTIONS. 235 

functionaries and others employed in the administration of 
military justice, in the discharge of their respective duties, 
offenses committed in the name of military justice, offenses 
of the common order subject to the laws of war. 

5th. Faults. — Those consisting of the infraction of mili- 
tary rules or the decrees of the military police, are punish- 
able by the tribunals of war, or administratively through 
correctionary discipline. 



PENALTY. 

In the matter of crimes, offenses and faults in general, 
the tribunals of war are subject to the dispositions of the 
Penal Code of the Federal District, in as far as same does 
not conflict with the Code of military justice. 

The following persons are criminally responsible before 
the military tribunals: members of the army, officials 
( " asimilados " ), those connected with same and those 
citizens who appear as authors, accomplices or concealers of 
crimes or offenses subject to the jurisdiction of war. By 
" asimilados ' are understood those individuals who render 
services in the army distinct from actual military duty, 
but who receive pay from the Federation and the considera- 
tion due to soldiers. 

The punishments applicable by the tribunals of war are: 

Expulsion, in public or private; Arrest, which is 
divided into minimum, covering from one to 30 days, and 
maximum, from 31 days to eleven months; Ordinary Im- 
prisonment, in the military prison, castle or fortress 
designated by the War Department, in a separate cell, with- 
out communication by day or night. This may last for a 
term of eleven months without exceeding fifteen years. 

Extraordinary Imprisonment, substituted for the death 
penalty in certain cases as provided by law, lasts for twenty 
years, and is applied in the same way as ordinary imprison- 



236 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

inent : Remanding to Service, applicable only to members 
of the troops, consists in depriving them of the right to 
request their discharge from the army, even though they 
should have completed their term of enlistment, for the 
period assigned by the penalty : Suspension from employ- 
ment or commission, which entails the deprivation of the 
emoluments to which the culprit may be entitled : Dis- 
missal from service, the death penalty, which is inflicted 
by shooting the criminal, but it is not permitted to torture 
the culprits previous to their execution. 

LATEST CHANGES IN THE CODE OF MILITARY JUSTICE. 

V. The Code of Military Justice, which became effective 
January 1st of the present year (1893), introduced impor- 
tant changes in what was known as Military Jurisprudence, 
which was contained in the third volume of the general 
army ordinances. These modifications consist chiefly in 
the organization of the tribunals, in the appeals and in the 
penalties. 

The new law did not limit the jurisdiction of war; but 
the common offenses committed within a military district, 
and which was formerly called military offenses, are now 
known as common offenses punishable by military courts. 

TRIBUNALS. 

The Military Court of Inquiry is composed of a solicitor 
general, two agents and the agents attached to Courts of 
First Inquiry. The Military Court of Inquiry is entrusted 
with the prosecution of crimes and the right and prompt 
administration of justice. The agent of the Court of 
Inquiry must be of equal or superior rank to the accused. 

All members of the army are obliged to act as defenders 
when so appointed, but generals cannot defend individuals 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 237 

of lesser rank than that of General of Brigade. The mili- 
tary chiefs are judges and impose penalties, in consultation 
with the consulting lawyer, provided the punishment of 
the crime equals at most eleven months of arrest. Exceed- 
ing this period, the ordinary councils of war consider the 
case. 

These councils are called permanent and are constituted 
as follows: Seven proprietary voters designated by the 
War Department, and the necessary substitutes to take the 
place of any absentees. When the culprit is of superior 
rank to any of the voters, the council is made up from 
members drawn in consecutive term from a list 
which must be published by the War Department, 
and in which appear the names of the officials 
eligible for such service, as provided by an ancient order. 
In the various zone the military heads carry this into effect. 
There exist permanent Councils of War as follows : Two in 
the Military Headquarters of the Federal District, one in 
the General Headquarters of each zone and one in the Mili- 
tary Headquarters designated by the Secretary of War. 

The members of the Council of War are refusable to the 
number of those without cause and must be excused when 
they have any legal impediment. 

The Extraordinary Councils of War are also composed 
of seven voters drawn at random from the best of officials 
made up by the chiefs empowered to convoke a session of 
the council. Those councils try crimes of a somewhat 
grave character ; but it is necessary that the criminal shall 
have been apprehended in fraganti and that twenty-four 
hours shall not have passed between the commission of the 
crime and the sentencing of the culprit. 

The trials are arranged by instructing judges who, upon 
termination of the preliminary proceedings and the declara- 
tion that the council is prepared to go into session, the 
day having been fixed ; present themselves at the conven- 



238 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

tion which is composed of the President of the Council, 
who is of the highest rank and at the same time President 
of the Debates. This latter personage seats himself at the 
spot most convenient, the Advising Attorney at his right 
and the Instructing Judge at his left. At the right of the 
Advising Attorney are seated those voters, and three more 
at the left of the Instructing Judge. 

In their respective places, are then seated the agent of 
the Court of Inquiry at the right of the President of the 
Debates, at the left the defender or defenders of the 
accused, the latter being seated on a bench in front. The 
Council must decide upon the questions which the advising 
lawyer may submit, and pronounce sentence in secret ses- 
sion. This sentence passes to the Supreme Military Court 
(formerly Supreme Court of Military Justice) in revision 
or appeal. 

The Supreme Military Court > is composed of two 
chambers, the first and second, composed as follows: 
the first of five magistrates, three generals and two 
lawyers with the character of generals of brigade ; 
the second, of two generals and one lawyer. 
These are called regular, in addition to which there 
are six supernumeraries, — four military and two legal, 
who act as substitutes for the regular, and form part of 
the full tribunal. Each chamber has its own President, 
and in the full tribunal the President of the first chamber 
presides, he being considered as chief of the Administra- 
tion of Justice in the tribunal of war. The first court con- 
siders appeals, the second, revisions. 

OF APPEALS. 

Sentence having been pronounced by a petty tribunal, 
if the interested parties are satisfied with the decision, the 
matter passes to the second chamber of the Supreme 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



239 



Military Court for revision, in order to determine whether 
there has been any violation of the law and place the re- 
sponsibility where it belongs. If the parties, or any one 
of them, are not satisfied, appeal is then resorted to and 
the matter goes to the first chamber for second trial. For 
three days proofs are received. The parties may request 
proofs, provided that which they request has not already 
been considered in the first trial. The day being set for a 
hearing, the parties allege and the court within the period 
of eight days must pronounce sentence changing, nullifying 
or confirming the judgment already passed. If the culprit 
is the appellant, no greater penalty can be inflicted than 
that already determined by the first court. This appeal 
may also be interposed during xhe trial for any decision 
which may cause injury and which may be specified by the. 
law. Besides the recourse of appeal, the law allows 
that of explanation of sentence and denied appeal. The 
first is in case the parties believe that the sentence of the 
court is obscure ; and must be resorted to the moment the 
decision has been given, while the tribunal must decide 
clearly upon the appeal. The second is resorted to when 
appeal has been denied, or when it has been granted with 
certain restrictions ("en el efecto devolutivo "). There 
exists in the law which has just been repealed, the appeal 
of abrogation (casacion) submitted to the universal laws 
which govern such matters, and which were provided for 
in the ordinance in question. 



OF PENALTIES. 



The following are now regarded as military crimes: 
Voluntary inutility, disobedience, insubordination, insults 
or violence directed against sentinels, guards, or safe- 
guards, calumny, undue deliberation, sedition or mutiny, 
infraction of sentinel's duties, infringement of duties of 



240 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

prisoners of war, evasion of same or of military arrests, 
abandonment, unnecessary capitulation, cowardice, deser- 
tion, dueling, intoxication, revelation of secrets, falsehood, 
abuse of authority, maltreatment of prisoners or persons 
under arrest, abuse of the military or civil Ipolice, maraud- 
ing, pillage, destruction, stealing, exaction, smuggling, 
rebellion, treason, usurpation of authority, false alarms, 
embezzlement, transfer or destruction of property belong- 
ing to the army, espionage, instigation for the purpose of 
helping the enemy, and crimes committed in the military 
administration. 

In general, the new law is much more lenient than the 
old one ; it only requires that the culprit who has been guilty 
while the third part of the ordinance has been in force, 
shall request the application of the most favorable law, in 
order that the tribunals shall grant to his demand. 

This new law is extolled by all as being just, legal and 
adequate to meet the requirements of the Mexican army, 
without departing from the universal rules governing 
military rights. 

If it possesses any defects, practice will soon demonstrate 
wherein they lie, in order that proper correction may be 
made of same. 



NATIONAL NAVY. 
ORGANIZATION WORKS. 

VI. All the governments of Mexico since it gained inde- 
pendence have made great sacrifices to. establish a well 
organized navy, and yet, in spite of all, they have not suc- 
ceeded in securing even a medium one, in a branch of 
national defense which is so important. 

In 1829 the fleet consisted of 1 war ship, 2 frigates, 1 
corvet, 4 brigs, 5 schooners, 2 other fore and aft schooners 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 24; 1 



and 4 gunboats, and the estimate of expenses amounted to 

$1,289,262. , , _ . .. 

In 1846, the small squadrons that used to ply along the 
coasts of theEepublic disappeared; out of a principle of 
national honor three vessels were disarmed and sunk in the 
Atlantic in order to obstruct approaches and to avoid being 
taken by the North American squadron. Twenty-one 
captains of war-ships and of frigates and over one hundred 
and fourteen officers who formed the commanding body of 
the navy were employed in land service till 1848, when 
thev were appointed to the few places which were to remain 
in the navy, whilst to all who were not given positions 
retirement for an unlimited period was granted. With the 
schooner « Fortuna," which cost the Government six thou- 
sand dollars, a beginning was made in 1849 in the formation 
of the new fleet which was now indispensable in order to 
give security to the coasts, to protect commerce and to 
prevent smuggling. . , 

The Secretary of War and of the navy in a memorial 
presented by him to the Congress in 1890, thus expressed 
himself about what the Mexican navy had been : « A series 
of trials and attempts without agreement, without plan and 
without resources and in consequence a succession of 
disasters,suchhas been since the independence the history of 
our war and merchant navy. In these attempts incalculable 
sums of money have been simply thrown away and what is 
more lamentable still is that numbers of citizens have been 
uselessly sacrificed; for deprived of natural resources, 
without experience and relying merely on their enthusiasm 
and bravery they were obliged to yield to the indisputable 
superiority of very skillful adversaries. Events which are 
not very distant warn us of the importance which a well 
organized navy has even among nations which do not 
as^re to play a grand part among maritime powers In 
the year 1829 Barradas without being noticed landed on 



242 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the Gulf coast and encamped on the bank of the Panuco. 
At least 300 years before this time the natives of Tabasco 
were already acquainted with seafaring matter and a number 
of large Indian canoes followed in the wake of the brigs 
of Cortes. In the year 1838 the squadron of Baudin cast 
anchor at the foot of the fortress at Ulua and displays 
under our eyes the preparations made for an assault. In 
1847 Scott was easily able to cast among us from his war 
vessels 3,600 bombs and plough up with his boats the 
waters of the port. Lastly we remember with what ease 
we have seen the soldiers of Napoleon III. repulsed from 
the stronghold of Mazatlan and yet find security in their 
boats, and then when out of our reach throw a parting shot 
among us as they were being lost to sight in the immensity 
of the Pacific Ocean. The inaction of the governments 
would awaken in us a feeling of shame and indignation if 
history, or rather the actual facts, did not justify our 
country which had just broken its prison bonds and was 
weak, inexperienced in war, engaged in social reforms and 
enveloped in an immense strife and had not therefore time 
to devote itself to technical studies nor the means to 
organize schools. But to-day it has them. Peace and 
national prosperity, the consequence of peace, are a living 
reality and nobody can now doubt that it is our duty to 
guard ourselves againt the surprises of the future and to 
prepare ourselves for resistance now that we have been 
taught by our many calamities. 

In effect the Republic is at present making preparations 
to become a maritime nation. The Federal Government 
is making efforts to increase the number of men-of-war 
and to secure the means to enable it to watch over national 
interests ; it is stimulating the progress of the national 
merchant navy by granting it absolute protection and is 
undertaking the formation of a body of marine officers 
who shall be well instructed in all the advances made 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 243 

in the sciences as well as in the practice which good 
service in the navy requires. 

For this object it has ordered the establishment of 
a special section of marine studies in the military college, 
wherein the young men who devote themselves to a naval 
life may receive a complete scientific education. Several 
of them have passed on to practice in the Spanish navy 
as midshipmen, others to Ferrol in order to follow the 
career of naval engineers, whilst others have gone to sea in 
the Mexican squadrons. The naval schools have sent 
forth from their bosoms talented pupils who have passed 
on to practice in national merchantmen as pilots paid by 
the treasury. 

The merchant fleet has also undergone various ups and 
downs owing to the continued state of political agitation 
through which the country has passed. As a national 
industry it has made the same strides in progress as the 
other industries and like them it has been supported for 
the most part by the interior markets and only in a very 
small degree by foreign ones. 

As regards the independence of the merchant fleet here 
is the opinion of the Secretary of War as given in the 
report already mentioned: "There are in force several 
laws which I am bound to observe and which undoubtedly 
rest upon economic and political grounds, which again are 
founded on scientific principles, but I may be allowed to 
presume that the absolute independence of the merchant 
fleet authorized perhaps by an erroneous interpretation of 
the laws, has for a long time deprived us of one of the 
most fruitful sources of wealth. This result was clearly 
seen when the laws of the Spanish Cortes, which were still 
in force in Mexico at the end of the war of independence, 
admitted conscription but rejected enrollment. Then in 
1841 when the naval ordinances put in force the system of 
enrollment the progress of the navy was at once evident 



244 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

as it was now protected both by its distinctive rights 
and able to support itself by the mere traffic along the 
coasts. 

" Inexperience was the cause of the abandonment of the 
protective system and the navy once more entered upon a 
period of decline. On the re-establishment of the Re- 
public a subvention was given to it ; but this means, which 
was suitable at that time, has now become unnecessary. 
At present we are able to strengthen our merchant navy, 
by uniting it with the war fleet so that it may act in con- 
junction with the latter for common interests that is in 
defending the country." 

Many regulations have been dictated by the Secretary 
of- War since 1879, with the object of thoroughly reorgan- 
izing the fleet. It would be tedious and perhaps useless to 
enumerate them ; the first ones were remolded in the law of 
the 28th of June, 1881, and this, along with later laws, was 
annulled by the new ordinance of the war fleet promul- 
gated on the 4th of July, 1891, and which came into force 
on the 16th of September of the same year. 

This ordinance took the place of the old ones of the 
years 1793 and 1802 which, with some few modifications, 
had till then remained in force although in some particulars 
they were in direct opposition to the political organization 
of the Republic. 

THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY. 

The naval administration of the Republic is under the 
charge of the Central Department of the Navy in the War 
Secretaryship ; under the Gulf of Mexico Department ; 
under the Pacific Ocean Department, under the twelve 
harbor-masters who in their turn are dependent on the 
Gulf Department and under fifteen who are subject to the 
Pacific Department. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 245 

The Naval Department is the central and advising office 
for all the others belonging to this branch. It has the 
powers and is supplied with the staff to undertake the 
labors of the department as has been already mentioned 
elsewhere. 

The Gulf and Pacific Departments are established, the 
first in Veracruz and the second in Mazatlan, and both have 
under their charge the squadrons in their respective seas, 
the direction of the merchantmen and general police and 
military inspection within the limits marked out for their 
jurisdiction. The staff of each is composed of 1 man- 
of-war captain who is chief of the Department, 1 frigate 
captain, judge instructor, 1 first lieutenant, secretary, 1 
sub-lieutenant, storekeeper, 2 clerks and 1 first ordinance 
sailor. 

The Harbor-masters of the Republic are 25 in number 
and have under their care the surveillance of the ports, 
roadsteads and bays. The chief duties of the captains who 
serve them are : to see that vessels are properly anchored 
or moored and that due order is observed inloadins: and un- 
loading ; to direct their entrances and departures and all 
maneuvers that take place in the harbors, as well as to in- 
spect and watch over the lighthouses; to practice a scientific 
knowledge of the ports having regard to their plans and 
other data and information which they may obtain and this 
by going with the official pilots; to advise the captains or 
shippers of national merchant vessels when they are ill- 
supplied with masts, yards, rigging, cables, etc., or when 
they are overloaded in such a way as to render them ex- 
posed to an accident; to see that they do not set sail before 
they are provided with all necessaries or before they are 
lightened and that they draw sufficient water. It is also 
incumbent on the harbor-masters to examine the smaller 
craft in order to inform themselves of their condition ; to 
give without any delay whatever the necessary assistance 



246 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

in cases of the grounding or losing of vessels on entering or 
leaving port and also to do all that is requisite when ves- 
sels are run into in such a manner as to cause serious 
damages, etc., etc. 

The habor-mastership of Veracruz is composed of 1 
corvet captain or first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 
interpreter and secretary, 1 clerk, 1 first boatswain, watch- 
man, 1 third boatswain, master, 4 second quarter-masters 
and 3 first sailors, oarsmen. 

The harbor-master's staff at Mazatlan consists of 1 cor- 
vet captain or first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 clerk, 
1 third boatswain, watchman, 1 first quartermaster, mas- 
ter, 2 second quartermasters, oarsmen, and 5 first sailors, 
also oarsmen. 

The remaining harbor-masterships are made up of 180 
persons and each of them is under the direction of one 
second lieutenant or of one sub-lieutenant. 

The positions of harbor-masters are divided according 
to their degree of importance into first, second and third 
class. 

The following are those of the Gulf with their class and 
geographical limits of jurisdiction : Matamoros, third class, 
jurisdiction extending from the center of the mouth of the 
river Bravo to three miles north of the bar of Soto la Marina. 
TampicOy second class, from that place to " Cabo Rojo." 
Tuxpan, third class, from the last point to three miles 
south of the bar of the river Cazones. Veracruz, first class, 
from the last point to three miles south of the river's 
mouth. Anton Lizardo from the last mentioned point 
to three miles south of the bar of Saulecomapan. Coat- 
zacoalcos, second class, from the last point to three 
miles east of the bar of Santa Ana. Frontera, third 
class, from that point to three miles north of the bar of 
San Pedro y San Pablo ; Ida del Carmen, second class, 
from the last point to three miles north of Jovinal Point ; 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 247 

Campeche, second class, from Jovinal Point to three miles 
north of the ranch of Clestum ; and Progreso, second class, 
from Celestum to the boundary line between the Kepublic 
and Guatemala. 

The Harbor-masterships of the Pacific Ocean, their class 
and limits of jurisdiction, are as follows: Todos Santos, 
third class (Lower California), from the boundary line of 
North America to Eugenio Point or Cape St. Eugenio : 
Ma Guadalupe, third class (Pacific Ocean), comprises the 
group of islands and their immediate dependents : Magda- 
lene Bay, third class (Lower California), from Eugenia 
Point to Rabbit Point or Cape ; San Lucas, third class, from 
the previous point to Cape Pulmo (inclusively) ; La Paz, 
second class, from the previous point to the right bank of 
the mouth of the river Colorado ; La Libertad, from that 
point to Cape Tepopa (inclusively) ;Guaymas, second class, 
from Cape Tepopa to the right bank of the mouth of the 
river Fuerte ;Altata, second class, from the previously men- 
tioned point to the mouth of the river Piaxtla (exclusively) ; 
Mazatlan, first class, from the last point to the mouths of 
the river Cafias, Teacapan ; San Bias, second class, from 
the last place to Point Graham (inclusively); Mas 
Marias take in the islands Revillagigedo, whose position 
with regard to the Marias, is about 176 or 200 leagues 
southwest and which consist of the islands Locarro, San 
Benito and Clarion; Manzanillo, third class, from Cape 
Graham to the bar of Zacatula (right bank); Acapulco, 
second class, from that point to the jutting point ; Puerto 
Angel, third class, from the previous point to the mouths 
of the river called Copalita ; Salina Cruz, third class, from 
the previous place to the point north of the bar of Tonala ; 
Tonald, third class, from the last point to Zacapulco; and 
Soconusco, third class, from the last point to the mouth of 
the river called Zuchiate. 



248 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



THE NATIONAL FLEET. 



The fleet of the nation consists of five war vessels, 
namely, the " Independencia," the "Libertad," the "Xi- 
cotencatl " and the second fore-and-aft schooner " Colon," 
which are all dependent on the Gulf Department, and the 
gun-boat " Dem6crata," which is under the Pacific 
Department. 

There are two naval establishments : The Porfirio Diaz 
Arsenal, situated in Goatzacoalcos, which guards the war 
material and furnishes important services to national and 
foreign vessels, and the Pedro Saenz de Baranda floating 
dock, which is dependent on the arsenal and opened for 
the service of the port where it is situated by a decree 
dated the 1st of February, 1888. Both establishments are 
supplied with the necessary foundries and endeavors have 
been made to give them the extension which their usefulness 
demands. 

The steamers " Eesguardo de Tampico," "Progreso," 
*' Campeche," " Mazatlan " and " Cuauthemoc " which 
previously formed part of the fleet, were made over by a 
memorandum of the President on the 15th of March, 1886, 
to the Secretaryship of the Exchequer for fiscal purposes. 
The corvet — School " Zaragoza," is a beautiful vessel des- 
tined for service in the national fleet. It was built in 
France and launched in the year 1891. Its masts are like 
those of a sailing vessel and its measurements the follow- 
ing: Length of water-line, 222 feet; breadth, 32.91 feet; 
mean draft of water, 12.82 feet; displacement, 1,221 tons ; 
speed, 15 miles. Its guns consist of 4 cannons of 472 
common closure ( cierre comun), 2 of 57 m / m rapid shooters, 
and 2 of 32 m / m mitrailleurs. It is capable of carrying 
230 men. According to the contract its building cost 395,- 
699 Mexican dollars. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 249 

We are told that in the fleets of the world there is only 
one other vessel of the same class as the " Zaragoza," and 
that is the cruiser "George Bancroft," of the North 
American navy. 

The officers and crew of the " Zaragoza " are made up 
of: 1 man-of-war captain, commander, 1 frigate captain, 
chief of details, 3 first lieutenants, 3 second lieutenants, 2 
sub-lieutenants, 3 first marine officers, 20 first midshipmen, 
1 first chief engineer, 1 second chief engineer, 2 second 
engineers, 1 electric engineer, 1 third engineer, 12 mechan- 
ical apprentices, 1 first boatswain, 2 second constables, 
stewards, waiters, quartermasters, gunners, sailors, etc., 
etc., numbering altogether 139 persons. 

The coast-guard steamers of the Mexican navy are four 
in number, the "Mazatlan," the " Tampico," the " Cam- 
peche," and the " San Bias," and have on board 40 
men. 

The merchant fleet is as follows : 33 steamers with 
5,581.06 tons burden, and 208 sailing vessels with a tonnage 
of 9,109 tons. 

THE STANDING ARMY. 

VII. On the 30th of June, 1890, the effective army had 
13 Division Generals, 83 Brigade Generals, 14 retired Gen- 
erals, 1,197 commanders and 2,596 officers. The infantry 
troops numbered 16,783, the cavalry 7,374, the artillery 
1,849, the Medical Body 213, the Staffs 152, the Military 
Commanderships 4, Engineers 900, the Supreme Court 4 
ordinances, and the Secretaryship of War with its De- 
partments, 12. These figures give a total of 31,194 men. 

The army has in its service 7,237 horses and 2,400 
baggage animals. 

The weapons of the infantry consist of Remington rifles 
of 43 caliber and numbering altogether 19,161 with 18,923 



250 



THE KICHES OF MEXICO 



bayonets, 413 swords and 1,718,499 cartridges, 586 Colt 
revolvers with 22,056 cartridges for them. 

The cavalry arms are Remington carbines, caliber 58 and 
50. The number of them is 8,870 with 543,953 cartridges ; 
8,357 sabers and 562 Eemington revolvers and 20,906 
cartridges. 

The artillery is supplied with its proper number of 
breech-loading cannons, the Bange system being the one 
adopted. Its effective troops consist of 39 commanders, 
192 officers and 1,849 men, 158 horses and 1,124 mules. 

In the General Park, the National Palace, in the store- 
houses of the artillery establishments and among the fixed 
companies at the various ports there is a vast number of 
fire-arms of different systems and calibers and a good 
supply of ammunition, lances, hand-grenades, battery and 
mountain cartridges of the Reffye system and for rifled 
guns of every caliber. 




CASTLE OF SAN JUAN DE ULUA, OPPOSITE VERACRUZ. 
•Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 



BOOK II 



GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION AND 
POPULATION. 

(251) 



CHAPTEE I. 

GEOGEAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF MEXICO. 
SITUATION AND BOUNDARIES. 

I. The northern boundaries which separate Mexico from 
the North American Eepublic have gone through several 
changes since the year 1795, when they were first settled be- 
tween that Republic and the Spanish Vice-regal Government. 
According to the treaty of 1819, the two Floridas were 
ceded to the Government of the United States, this cession 
including the islands adjacent to the coast and depending 
on those provinces. The treaties of 1828 were entered 
into with the object of ratifying the boundaries recognized 
in the treaty of 1819. On the 2d of February, 1848, the 
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, under which the 
divisory line between the United States and Mexico was 
greatly altered, and this treaty was afterwards confirmed 
and slightly modified by that of December 30th, 1853, in 
the following manner : 

Leaving intact the same boundary line between the two 
Californias, as already defined and marked in accordance 
with Art. V. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the 
boundary between the two Republics is declared to be as 
follows : commencing in the Mexican Gulf at a distance of 
three leagues from the shore, the line starts from the mouth 
of the Rio Grande as stipulated in the above mentioned 
Art. V. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ; from thence, 
as is also stipulated in that article, the line follows the 
center of the river up to a point where it crosses the parallel 
of 31° 47' north latitude; from thence it follows a straight 

(253) 



254 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

line due west for a distance of 100 miles ; thence due south 
to the parallel of 31° 20' north latitude ; from that point 
the line follows this last parallel to the meridian 111° west 
of Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point in the 
Eio Colorado 20 miles below the junction of the rivers Gila 
and Colorado; and from thence, following the center of the 
river Colorado, the line runs up stream till it meet3 the 
present boundary line between the twoCalifornias.* 

On the southeast, Mexico is bounded by the Eepublic of 
Guatemala, which at one time formed a part of its terri- 
tory until the year 1824, when it separated on the fall of 
the Emperor Iturbide. The boundaries between Guate- 
mala and Mexico gave rise to complicated diplomatic ques- 
tions which were finally settled by negotiations in 1882. 

In accordance with the convention of the 23d of Sep- 
tember of that year, signed in Mexico City by plenipoten- 
tiaries representing both nations, a scientific commission 
was appointed composed of six engineers from each of 
the contracting parties. This body was commissioned to 
definitely specify the natural points constituting the boun- 
daries between the two nations and to set up the proper 
landmarks showing the artificial lines. 

These lines were specified under Article III, of the treaty 
of the first of March, 1883, in the following manner: 

" The permanent boundaries between the two nations 
shall be the following : 1st. The center line of the Eio 
Suchiate, starting from a point in the sea distant 3 leagues 
from its mouth and following the river upwards by its 
deepest channel, to a point at which the river cuts the 
vertical plane passing through the highest peak of the vol- 
cano of Tacana, at a distance of 25 meters from the south- 
ernmost column of the Talquian Custom House, in such a 
manner that this Custom House shall remain within the 



* Treaty of La Mesilla — Art. I. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 255 

territory belonging to Guatemala. 2d. The line determined 
by the vertical plane above spoken of, from the point 
where it meets the river Suchiate, up to its intersection 
with the vertical plane that passes to Ixbul from the sum- 
mit of Buenavista. 3d. The line determined by the verti- 
cal plane which passes through the summit of Buenavista, 
and which will be fixed astronomically by the Mexican 
Scientific Commission, and the summit of the mountain of 
Ixbul, from the point where it intersects the previous line 
up to a point 4 kilometers distant from the latter hill. 
4th. The parallel of latitude which passes through the 
point last specified, running in an easterly direction until 
it intersects the deepest channel of the river Usumacinta, 
or that of the Chixoy, in case the above mentioned parallel 
does not intersect the first named river. 5th. The center 
line of the deepest channel of the river Usumacinta or of 
the river Chixoy, if that should be the one intersected, and 
following the stream of the Usumacinta until it intersects 
the parallel situated 25 kilometers to the south of Tenosique 
in Tabasco, such line being measured from the center of the 
Plaza in that town, 6th. The parallel of latitude above 
referred to as intersecting the deepest channel of the 
Usumacinta, until it intersects the meridian at a third 
part of the distance between the centers of the plazas of 
Tenosique and Sacluc, such third part being measured from 
Tenosique. 7th. This same meridian, from its intersection 
with the parallel above spoken of to its intersection with 
the parallel of 17° 49'. 8th. The parallel last spoken of 
from its intersection with the last meridian, in an easterly 
direction as far as required. 

On the east, the Republic is bounded by the Mexican 
Gulf and Carribean Sea, from the mouth of the Rio Bravo 
to the peninsula of Yucatan, giving a coast line of 2,580 
kilometres. On the west it is bounded by the Pacific 
Ocean, with a coast line of 6,250 kilometres. The greatest 



256 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

width of the Republic from east to west is 2,000 kilo- 
metres, measured on the frontier line of the United States, 
and the least width, is on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
where it measures 210 kilometres. Its greatest leDgth 
from north to southeast, is 2,800 kilometres. 

Astronomically speaking, the Mexican Republic is sit- 
uated between the parallels of 14° SO' and 32° 42' of north 
latitude, and between the meridians of 12° 21' east and 18° 
west of Mexico. According to the English system these 
would be 86° 46' 8" and 117° 7' 9" west of the Observatory of 
Greenwich. Its superficial area measures 1,983,332 iniri- 
aras, and the adjacent islands 3,682, thus giving a total 
area of Mexican territory of 1,987,014 miriaras, or 751,700 
square miles. 

MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 

II. Probably there is not another country in the world 
whose mountain system is found so attractive as that of 
Mexico. This opinion, which was expressed by Baron 
Humboldt, has been afterwards confirmed by many eminent 
g;eoloo;ists and travelers. Starting from CaDe Horn and 
running along the west coast of South America, the magni- 
ficent Cordillera of the Andes undergoes a depression on 
the Isthmus of Panama and elevating itself afresh, enters 
the territory of the Republic by way of Soconusco. In 
the State of Chiapas, its branches form narrow and pro- 
longed ravines, valleys and table lands with an elevation 
of 1,200 or 1,500 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean, 
giving to the country a most picturesque appearance, and 
the aspect of a coast protected by enormous batteries of 
granite. To the north of Oaxaca, Morelos and Guanajuato, 
this important range acquires a great width under the 
name of Sierra Madre, and from thence it forms a series 
of elevated mountain ranges which have been called the 
Mexican Andes, and which, stretching along the entire 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 257 

length of the central tableland disappear in the valley of 
the Eio Bravo del Norte. To the north of Oaxaca this 
range becomes forked, one branch bearing to the eastward 
in the direction of Charcas and Catorce until it is lost in 
the State of Nuevo Leon, where it forms extensive and 
fertile valleys as well as a series of canyons, through which 
torrents of water descend during the rainy season. The 
western branch, which runs parallel to the eastern, traverses 
the State of Guerrero, where it undergoes a considerable 
depression, rising afresh in the State of Michoacan. It 
undergoes another depression in Jalisco, in the neighborhood 
of Bolanos, and continues in a northerly direction by way 
of Culiacan and Arizpe in the States of Sonora and Sinaloa, 
from whence it eventually unites with the Eocky Mountain 
ranges in the United States. A third branch, which is not 
so clearly defined, extends through Zacatecas and Durango, 
continues through Parral in the State of Chihuahua, and 
from thence is ultimately absorbed in the Sierra Madre of 
the western coast. 

This immense system of mountains gives to the country 
an extremely varied aspect and is the reason why all 
the climates are found within its territory, according to the 
diversity of altitude. 

Starting from either coast towards the central table- 
land, the country is found elevating itself in a way that is 
plainly visible, and at times forming steep elevations. 
From the coasts of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, as well as 
from the plains of the northern frontier, enormous walls 
of basaltic rocks and granite peaks are seen to crown the 
summits of the ranges, presenting great difficulties in those 
parts where the traveler finds no road. Between the spurs 
of these mountains are found many picturesque and fertile 
valleys or plains, beautifully watered by meandering 
streams and sometimes by considerable rivers, which, 
duringthe rainy season are often heavily flooded. The most 

17 



258 



THE KICHES OF MEXICO 



notable of these valleys which form, it may be said, steps 
from the sea upwards, are the following : 



Elevation above 
sea level. 

Valley of Toluca ... 2580 m. * 

Canada de Lxtla- 

huaca 2527 " 

Plains of the Apam 

(Tlaxcala) .2480 " 

San Juan de los 
Llanos (Puebla)...2360 " 

Llanos del Cazadei'o 
(Hidalgo) 2300 " 

Valley of Mexico . . . 2270 " 

Patzcuaro (Michoa- 
can) 2190 " 

Valley of San Cristo- 
bal L. C. (Chiapas) 2104 " 

Valley of Puebla .... 2000 to 2150 m. 

Tulancingo (Hidal- 
go).. ..2089 m. 

Tula 2047 " 

Plains of the Salado 

(San Luis) 2000 to 230C m. 

Iritacuaro (Michoa- 

can), 2000 m. 

Morelia (Michoacan) 1950 " 

San Juan del Rio 

(Queretaro) 1950 " 

Ario 1890 " 

Bajio (Guanajuato.. 1750 to 1790m. 

Tazco de Alarcon. ..1780 m. 

Cueucame (Duran- 

go) 1740 " 

Valley of Maltrata 
(Veracruz) 1691 " 

Valley of Oaxaca. . . . 1550 " 

* Metre, 3 feet 3| inches. 



Elevation above 
sea level. 

Cuernavaca (More- 
los) 1525 m. 

Guadalajara (Jalis- 
co) 1523 " 

Zapotlan (Jalisco) .. 1425 " 

Chilpancingo (Guer- 
rero) 1420 " 

Sayula (Jalisco) 1385 " 

Atenquique (Jalisco) 1248 " 

Valley of Orizaba 

(Veracruz) 1227 " 

Valley of El Maiz ... 1220 " 

Valley of Ameca 

(Jalisco) 1180 " 

Tula de Tamaulipas.1171 " 

Valley of the Nazas 

(Durango) 1100 " 

Plains of San Gabriel 
(Morelos) 1008 " 

Iguala (Guerrero) .. . 919" 

Tepic (City of) 900 " 

Jorullo.... 850" 

Colima 532 « 

Mexcala (Rio de las 
Balsas) 520 " 

Monterrey (Nuevo 
Leon) 486 " 

Ciudad Victoria (Ta- 
maulipas) 449" 

Cerralvo (Nuevo 
Leon) 380 " 

Las Balsas 123 " 

Acaponeta 64 " 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



259 



The following are some of the principal mountains in the 
Republic, with their elevations according to the latest cal- 
culations : 



Popocatepetl (Mex- 
ico and Puebla) . .5420 m. 

Citlaltepetl or Peak 
of Orizaba (Vera- 
cruz 5395 " 

Ixtlacihuatl (Mexico 
and Puebla) 4800 " 

Xinantecatl or Peak 
of Toluca (Mexico) 4578 " 

Peak of Colima (Jal- 
isco 4?78 " 

Ajusco (Federal Dis- 
trict) 4153 " 

Matlacueyatl or Mal- 
intzi (Tlaxcala)...4107 " 

Cofre de Perote or 
Nauchampatepetl 
(Veracruz) 4089 " 

Volcano of Colima 

(Jalisco) 3884 " 

Peak of Tancitaro 

(Michoacan) . . 3860 " 

Llanitos (Guana- 
juato) 3815 " 



Mount Patamban 

(Michoacan) 3750 m. 

Zempoaltpetl (Oax- 
aca)... 3396 " 

Peak of Quinceo 

(Michoacan) 3325 " 

El Gigante (Guana- 
juato) 3250 " 

Las Navajas (Hidal- 
go) 3212 " 

Veta Grande (Zacat- 

ecas) 2786 " 

Hueitepec (Chiapas)2705 " 

Jesus Maria (Chi- 
huahua) 2511 " 

Monte Proafio (Za- 
catecas) 2368 " 

Volcano of Ceboruco 

(Jalisco) 1525 " 

Volcano of Tuxtla 

(Veracruz) 1500 " 

Volcano of Jorullo 

(Michoacan) 1300 " 



GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 

IV. The coasts lying along the Pacific and Gulf in the 
Republic of Mexico, are formed of earths belonging to the 
tertiary period, interrupted to a small extent by eruptive 
and sedimentary rocks; with the exception, however, of 
the coast of Lower California, lying, approximately, 
between the 2° 40' and 28° 10' of north latitude, which is 



260 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

formed by earths of the quaternary period. Contiguous to 
the tertiary earths, departing from the coast, are to be 
found those of the quaternary ; these form the chief por- 
tion of the Yucatan Peninsula, terminating at a few min- 
utes from San Juan Bautista, capital of Tabasco, and pre- 
cede the cretaceous earths lying between the 19° 4' and 51° 
50' of North Lat. ; 2° 20' E. Long, and 7° 30' W. From the 
second to the ninth parallel of W. Long, the tertiary earths 
join with the cretaceous earths and from there begins the 
vast zone of eruptive rocks, primitive and metamor- 
phised, comprised between the 18° and 32° of North 
Lat. which contains the so-called Volcanic Zone, of 
which we shall treat below. Between the 2° and 3° of W. 
Long, and the 24° of North Lat. are also found jurastic 
earths as are also met with in the State of San Luis Potosl, 
along the tablelands which extend to the north and east 
of Mineral de Caiorce; these are not, however, the only 
determination of that mesozoic subdivision which have been 
classified, although these lands do not abound in the 
Republic. 

From the cretaceous rocks met with on many of the 
mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the coasts of 
the Mexican territory, and which are found to be upheaved 
by masses of porphyry, Don Mariano Barcena has concluded 
that the original mountain ranges were formed towards the 
end of the Mesozoic period or at the beginning of the tertiary. 
The sedimentary marine formations were upheaved by vol- 
canic action on the masses of porphyry, many of which crown 
the crest and peaks of our mountains. Enormous hollows 
were formed corresponding to the upheavals, and probably 
were occupied for many centuries of the tertiary period, by 
extensive lakes. At the present day many vestiges of these 
lakes can be seen in different parts of the Republic, es- 
pecially in the States of Oaxaca, Nuevo Leon and Tamau- 
lipas. . During the Mesozoic age, enormous disturbances 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 261 

took place, doubtless due to volcanic action, and extensive 
traces of these can be found in the interesting zone com- 
prised between the 18th and 20th parallels of latitude (90 
kilometres apart), in which active volcanoes are found to 
this day, as well as the greater part of the extinct ones. 
The principal volcanoes in Mexico are the following: — 
Active. Jorullo, whose formation dates from the year 
1759, and which now appears to be in a quiescent condition, 
although it still gives a few belches of sulphur and smoke; 
Tuxtla de San Martin, which had an eruption in 1793; 
Popocatepetl, whose late eruption was in 1802, and Colima 
in 1870. Besides the above, we have the peak of Orizaba, 
which is visible at a large distance out on the Gulf of 
Mexico, forming a beautiful spectacle to greet the traveler. 
Amongst the extinct volcanoes we have the following: that 
of San Andres de Tuxtla and Uqueo in Michoacan ; the Peak 
of Toluca in Mexico ; Ajusco in San Nicolas ranges and 
Cerro Caldera in the Federal District and Puebla ; the Colli 
in Jalisco and the Cofre of Perote (in Puebla) which, al- 
though not formed like most volcanoes, contains several 
extinct craters on its slopes besides other vestiges of the 
course of lava streams. The Peak of Toluca is very 
remarkable from the circumstances that its crater contains 
four lakes of drinking water, of which the largest measures 
400 feet in length by 250 in width, with a depth of ten 
metres. 

The Azoic period, which left such clearly defined traces 
in Canada and the northern lakes of the United States, 
does not appear to have had much effect on the geological 
formation of Mexico, unless it be on a few crystalline rocks 
to be found in the southern ranges of the Sierra Madre,* 
and which perhaps may be said to belong to that period. 
The same may be claimed with respect to the Silurian 



* Cfeology, by Mariano Barcena. 



262 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

period, for, although there are a few sandstones and slates 
to be found in the western Sierra Madre, and in the District 
of Altar in Sonora, it has not yet been scientifically proved 
that these strata should be credited to that particular period. 
Nor have there as yet been found any formations which 
can be described as characteristic of the Devonian period, 
and the study of the carboniferous formation is, up to the 
present, very imperfect. The coal beds in the midland 
States, according to the author above mentioned, belong to 
a more recent period ; but this assertion, which appears well 
founded with respect to some of the interior States, is not so 
as regards the coal beds of San Felipe and Piedras Negras 
in Coahuila, San Marcial in Sonora, besides those of 
Chihuahua, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca and 
Chiapas, of which mention will be made at length further on. 
TheTriasic period in the Mesozoic age, left remarkable im- 
pressions in the form of a dark or gray colored clay slate 
which contains particles of mica and which has been discov- 
ered in the district of Acatlan in the State of Puebla. In 
" Noria de los Angeles," in the State of Zacatecas, and in 
other parts, ferrasic amonites have been discovered and com- 
pact foetid lime stone, with a gray, smoky color, which have 
been carefully studied by the Mexican geologist, Don 
Mariano Barcena. These contain hypurites, merineas and 
radiolites in abundance. In regular stratification through- 
out these masses have been found limestone, slate, clay, 
slates and beds of " piedra lidia." No traces can be met 
with of the glacial period or of the Cenozoic age, and the 
large polished blocks which have been found by General 
Riva Palacio in the neighborhood of Acapulco appear most 
likely to belong to the Champlain or Diluvial period. To 
the same period quite probably appertain the alluvial and 
lacustrine valleys, which are so abundantly found within 
the Republic. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 263 



GEOLOGICAL COMMISSION OF MEXICO. 



It cannot be said without exaggeration that profound 
geological studies have been carried to a successful tcrmi- 
nation in Mexico, nor, much less with that continuity of 
purpose which they demand ; it may be truthfully stated, 
however, that meritorious efforts have been made in this 
direction. 

The Geological Commission, initiated by the Department 
of Colonization, Industry and Commerce on April 26th, 1886, 
and which was created by the decree of December 18th, 
1888, has made unheard of efforts in the accomplishment 
of its important task, as the success of its labors abundantly 
attest. In 1889 it presented at the Universal Exposition 
of Paris a "Geological Map of the Republic," containing 
fifty per cent of the superfice of the country, and a '< Mining 
Chart of the Republic," which works were awarded a gold 
medal. In 1890 it submitted the same works to the 
" Mineral Metallurgical Exposition " of London, and, wilh 
the same good fortune, these were also awarded a gold 
medal. At the International Geological Congress, which 
met in Washington, in 1891, it exhibited the Geological 
Map of the Republic augmented with new determinations, 
and containing a study of seventy per cent of the superfice 
of the country. To this work was added the paleontologic 
and petrographic collections which served the purpose of 
determining and classifying the formations. It is proposed 
to exhibit at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, this 
present year, the geological map in question, containing 
seventy -five per cent of the superfice of the country, the 
paleontological and petrographical collections augmented, 
and a mining chart of the Mexican Republic. 

The personnel of this organization is as follows : Professor 



264 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Antonio del Castillo, director ; Jose S. Aguilera, paleontol- 
ogist; Ezequiel Ordonez, petrographist ; Carlos Sapper, 
geologist ; Ramon Felix Buelna, mining geologist; Luis G. 
Becerril, draughtsman ; Natalio Diaz, clerk ; Fidencio Rod- 
riguez, engraver. 

At the present writing (April, 1893), Mr. Sapper is 
devoting himself to the study of the Southern States, and 
Mr. Buelna will shortly make a tour of exploration of those 
regions in some of the Northern States as yet unexplored. 
As soon as the general formations are determined, the 
commission will direct its energies to the study of the 
details of the metalliferous croppings of " Agricultural 
Geology," and complete a few other important geological 
studies, in diverse localities of the country. An appropri- 
ation of $30,000.00 per annum has been assigned to the use 
of this commission. 



NATURAL WONDERS. 

V. Amongst the wonders of nature which are to be found 
in Mexico, worthy of study by the traveler and geologist, we 
can mention the Barranca de las Tres Penas with its mag- 
nificent scenery, the falls of Juanacatlan, in the State of 
Jalisco, called by some travelers the Mexican Niagara, 
with a width of 146 metres and a fall of 17 metres, the 
falls of Regla formed by the waters of the River Huazca- 
zaloya, which fall into an amphitheater formed of magnifi- 
cent basaltic columns 34 metres high, and showing an extent 
of 234 metres of cliff full of these wonderful natural 
formations. The grotto of Cacahuamilpa in the State of 
Guerrero, is widely known, and of this grotto it has been 
said that " a painter can draw all the fanciful figures that 
his imagination can inspire, and assure people that he has 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 265 

copied them from the interior of the Cave of Cacahuamilpa, 
without any fear of contradiction." * 

The ravine in which this grotto is found has a length of 
about 4 kilometres. — The geyser of San Andres in Michoa- 
can, has been thus described by Saussure: "In front of 
the spectator rises a white slope which appears to be covered 
with porcelain; on the summit is found a well with a 
diameter of two meters from which a stream of vapor 
issues with a horrible hissing sound, and rises to a consid- 
erable elevation ; a wave of boiling water overflows from the 
opening and runs to the bottom of the valley along numerous 
gutters, leaving behind it a lining of silica, making the gut- 
ters appear to be lined with the finest china. .The same forest 
contains lakes of boiling water, solfataras and fumarolas. 

In the suburbs of Puebla, adjacent to the ranch known as 
La Posada, the eminent Mexican geologist, Professor An- 
tonio del Castillo, discovered in 1881 a geyser of tophus 
limestone which sends forth at intermittent periods sul- 
phidric gas, and this is known in that vicinity by the in- 
digenous title of Ouescomate. 

The Mexican Geological Commission has just published 
a view taken from the mouth of the Geyser, from south to 
north, and a section from northwest to southeast. 

It would require a voluminous and special work to give 
an account of all the natural wonders that are so abundantly 
found throughout the Mexican territory. 



HYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 

VI. The following table shows the names of the 
principal rivers in Mexico, the States in which they 



* Francisco Bulnes — Civil Engineer. 



266 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

are found, their length in leagues and the seas they flow 
into. 

States through which Length in 

Rivers. they flow. leagues. Discharge. 

Bravo Chihuahua, Coahuila and Tam 

aulipas 548 Gulf of Mexico. 

Panuco Tamaulipas 120 

Alvarado Veracruz 87 

Coatzacoalcos. " 87 

Grijalva Chiapas and Tabasco 132 

Usumacinta . . . " I 31 

Yaqui Sonora 150 Gulf of California. 

Mayo " 74 

Ures • " 100 

jr U erte Between Sonora and Siualoa 130 

Culiacan Sinaloa • • • • 60 

Sinaloa " 100 

Balsas Guerrero, Michoacan & Mexico . . 164 Pacific Ocean. 

Mezquital Durango and Jalisco 115 

Nazas Durango 81 Lake of Parras. 

Ameca Jalisco • • Pacific Ocean. 

Lerma or Mexico, Michoacan 

Tololotlan ... Guanajuato and Jalisco 208 

The lakes of the Republic can be considered as divided 
under two heads ; one comprised in the country included 
between 19 and 21° of N. Latitude and the other situated 
in the southern part of the country. The names of the 
principal lakes are as follows: — 

In Coahuila, Tlahualilo or Caiman, El Muerto and Par- 
ras. In Tamaulipas, the Laguna Madre. In Chihuahua, 
the lakes of Guzman, El Tajo, Santa Maria, Patos, Castillo, 
and Enciuillas. In Campeche, the Laguna de Terminos. 
Between Jalisco and Michoacan, Chapala. In Michoacan, 
Cuitzeo and Patzcuaro. In Mexico: Chalco, Xochimilco, 
Lerma, Zumpango, Xaltocan, Texcoco and San Cristobal. 
In Hidalgo, Metztitlan. In Veracruz, Taniahua. On 
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Superior Lake and the 
Inferior Lake. In Nuevo Leon: San Francisco, Conchas 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 267 

and others of salt water. In Tabasco, Ramon and Ismate. 
In Chiapas : Tepancuapan with a length of 24 kilometres, 
and the lake of Islotes. In Durango, Guatimape. In 
Guanajuato: Juriria, measuring 17 kilometres in length 
and 7 in width. 

The following table has been published giving the tem- 
perature of some of the different waters of the country. 

Springs of hard water in Mexico City 22° 50 

Hard water in the reservoir at Salto del Agua 17 60 

Spring of soft water in the Desierto 9 00 

Soft water in reservoirs within the City 13 98 

Artesian well in the Preparatory School - 15 06 

Artesian well in the Hospital of San Lucas 17 30 

Artesian well in Bucareli Avenue. 21 50 

Artesian well in the Mint 25 50 

Large reservoir in Chapultepec 21 47 

Common well in the National Palace 15 90 

Settling tank in Guadalajara 21 00 

Water in the well in Guadalupe 21 50 

Aragon Baths — Mexico 24 50 

Baths at the Station in Guadalupe 22 80 

Water of the Pefion Baths 44 50 

Baths at Atotonilco — Hidalgo 66 50 

Sulphur water at Santiago — Puebla 28 00 

Baths at Tenguedo— Hidalgo 46 20 

Baths at Zalatitan, near Guadalajara 41 00 

Laja Spring, near Ahualulco — Jalisco 93 00 



" * CLIMATE. 

Temperature and Barometric Pressure. 

VII. The climate of Mexico has not as yet been the 
object of serious study, but of the results of such observa- 
tions as made, the most notable is that published in the 
City of Mexico in 1879, and which is entitled "Data for 
the Study of the Climate of Mexico," by Dr. Domingo 
Orvananos. Most of the following information has been 
taken from this excellent work and from another by the 



268 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

same author, called " Essay on the Medical and Climatolo- 
gical Geography of the Mexican Republic." This book 
was compiled from official data which had been collected 
from the Department of Fomentation, and was published by 
that Department in the year 1888, whilst General Carlos 
Pacheco administered it, with such credit to himself and 
his country. 

Few countries can be compared with Mexico in regard to 
variety of climate. During a voyage of a few hours by 
rail, the thermometer will vary from 20° to 27° centigrade 
in the summer, and the same journey made in winter will 
show a variation of from 18° to 30° ; and the light clothes 
which the immigrant can hardly bear when he lands in Vera- 
cruz, have to be changed on arrival in Mexico for a much 
heavier class, the traveler feeling as cold in summer as he 
would in a moderate winter elsewhere. 

This does not mean that the temperature rises in a steady 
and continuous manner from the coast to the Central table- 
land, as it often happens in the Pacific and Southern States, 
where the cold country is only a few hours distant from 
the coast and the hot country is situated at a much larger 
distance in the interior of the country. The different 
elevations found in Mexico have led to the division of the 
climate into three classes : hot, temperate and cold, for 
which reason the lands situated at an elevation of less than 
1,000 meters above the sea, are called " Tierra Caliente," 
or hot country. These districts produce all kinds of 
tropical fruits and products, such as the cocoa, the mango, 
the banana, etc. Between the elevations of 1,000 and 
2,000 metres we have the " Tierra Templada," or tem- 
perate zone, which is that to which immigrants ought to 
direct their steps, both because it is free from all risk of 
yellow fever, which does not propagate at more than 
700 metres elevation, and because it is free from the 
excessive heat of the sea and coast and the insupportable 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 269 

plague of insects which there abound. The part of the 
country called " Tierra Fria," or cold country, is under- 
stood to be all that is situated at an elevation of more than 
2,000 meters above the sea, and where severe cold is 
sometimes felt in winter time. In these parts the ther- 
mometer occasionally shows a cold of 40 or 50° below zero, 
but these cases are very rare. Even in the coldest parts of 
Mexico, which are undoubtedly found in the mountains of 
Chihuahua, hard winters are very unfrequent, and on the 
central tableland the thermometer is very seldom found 
descending to zero, even in elevated valleys like that of 
Toluca. 

The latitude and longitude have very little influence on 
the climate of the greater part of the country, which is 
distributed, partly in the torrid and partly in the temperate 
zone. To make comparisons of temperature would require 
the examination of the thermometrical data obtained in 
various places situated at the same altitude but in different 
latitudes. 

The mean temperature of the three zones above spoken 
of is as follows: 

Hot country (according to situation) 23° to 25° 

Temperate country (according to situation) ... 17° to 19° 

Cold country (according to situation) 13° to 17° 

As a general rule, the climate of Mexico can be consid- 
ered as temperate. 

According to Dr. Orvananos the mean difference between 
the average temperature of the hottest and coldest months, 
is greater in the hot country, less in the temperate zone 
and very slight in the cold country. In the first, this 
difference amounts to 8° or 10°; in the second, it varies 
between 6° and 10° and in the third between 5° and 8°. 
The average of the highest temperatures which are observed 
in the course of a year (absolute maximum) as well as in 



270 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the lowest temperatures (absolute minimum) is as follows: 
In the hot country the first is 28° to 30° and the second 16° to 
22°; in the temperate zone, the first is 23° to 33° and in the 
second 0.5' to 12°, whilst in the cold country the first is 19° 
to 33° and the second 0.5' to 9°. 

The difference between the absolute maximum and mini- 
mum is less in the hot country, increases in the temperate, 
and continues that increase, although very slightly, in the 
cold. At the same time it undergoes a notable diminution 
in those places which are situated above the level of 2,300 
meters. 

From the foregoing it will be understood that the climate 
of the Kepublic can be classified as very equable in propor- 
tion to the elevation. At the same time it becomes more 
variable in proportion to the increased elevation. But that 
variation is greatly diminished in those localities which are 
situated above the average elevation of the central tableland. 

The different seasons of the year are hardly to be felt in 
the inter-tropical regions, but they are more marked in 
those which are situated at the higher elevations. In those 
parts of the country which are comprehended in the torrid 
zone, the different seasons are only known as dry and wet. 
The dry season extends from November to May, during 
which time rains are very scarce, whilst the wet season 
begins in June and terminates in October, during which 
time the rains are very abundant. In some States, such as 
Tabasco, the rainy season is at times prolonged to eight or 
nine months, whilst in others, such as Yucatan, this season 
is generally found to be almost dry. 

The mean barometric pressure at 0° in the seventeen 
principal meteorological stations established in the Repub- 
lic, is as follows: Aguascalientes, 605.68; Amecameca 
(Mexico), 563.48 ; Guadalajara (Jalisco), 638.83 ; Guana- 
juato, 605.91; Huejutla (Hidalgo), 763.82; Leon (Guana- 
juato), 618.70; Mazatlan (Sinaloa), 760.87; Mexico 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 271 

(Capital), 586.46; Pabellon (Aguascalientes), 607.76; 
Puebla (State College ), 593.49 ; Puebla (Catholic College), 
094.02 ; San Luis Potosi, 613.41 ; Toluca, 568.06 ; Tuxpaa 
(Veracruz), 762.58 ; Veracruz, 760.00 ; Zacatecas, 573.45; 
Monterey, 718.07. 

The following table shows the elevation, mean tempera- 
ture and barometric pressure in the principal cities of the 
Republic: 

CITIES. 

Hermosillo 

Culiacan 

Guadalajara 

Colima 

Morelia 

Chilpancingo 

Oaxaca 

San Cristobal Las Casas 

Merida 

Campeche Sea level 

San Juan Bautista 

Jalapa 1405 

Ciudad Victoria 449 

Chihuahua 1412 

Saltillo 1627 

Monterrey 495 21°86 718.07 

Durango 2100 

Zacatecas '.'. 2442 

San Luis Potosi 1890 

Aguascalientes 1861 

Guanajuato . . . . 2083 

Queretaro . < 1490 

Pachuca 2450 

Toluca 2625 12°60 £56.03 

Tlaxcala 2252 

Puebla 2162 

Cuernavaca 1542 

Mexico 2260 

La Paz Sea level 

Tepic 953 24°00 676.75 



Elevation 
meters. 


Mean 
tempera- 
ture. 


Mes 
ric 
mi 


in baromet- 
pressure in 
Uimeters. 


210 








40 








1566 


19°83 




636.40 


486 


2<5°11 




717.75 


1950 


16°50 




615.76 


1193 


21°00 






1546 


19°90 




636.39 


2104 








8 


26°16 




763.07 


a level 


26°00 




761.72 


.... 


26°03 




...... 



15°80 


572.97 


17°25 


614.16 


17°80 


604.75 


18°80 


601.37 


17°60 


615.36 



15°86 


593.81 


21°09 


636.67 


15°72 


586.80 



272 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



HUMIDITY. 

In the hot country, the mean humidity varies from 85.04 
to 77 hundredths, in the temperate zone it runs from 77 
to 60 hundredths and from 67.05 to 48.04 in the cold 
country. 

According to the data collected up to the present time, 
it appears that the atmospheric humidity is rather greater 
on the Gulf coast than on the Pacific coast, as the first 
almost amounts to 85 hundredths, whilst the second usually 
remains below 80 hundredths. 

It happens at times, that on account of the prevailing 
winds, the average of humidity does not obey the general 
laws, and that is what occurs in the towns of Mazatlan and 
Guadalajara in which we have an average humidity of 77 
hundredths, although Mazatlan is situated on the sea level and 
Guadalajara at an elevation of 1,567 meters, besides being 
70 leagues from the coast. 

With respect to humidity, the climate of Mexico can be 
classified as follows: 

The hot country, humid. 

The temperate zone, moderately humid and the cold 
country very dry. 

RAINS. 

With regard to rains, the following facts have been 
noticed : 

1st. It rains more or less throughout the whole extension 
of the Eepublic. 

2d. The rains are more plentiful on the Gulf coast than 
on the Pacific coast. 

3d. That rains are abundant to the south of the Gulfs of 
Mexico, California and Tehuantepec. 

4th. That the rains are moderate in the greater parts of 
the central and northern States. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



273 



5th. That in the Gulf States, such as Veracruz and 
Tabasco, and the western part of Campeche, the rains are 
very abundant, whilst they are moderate in Yucatan and the 
ports of Tamaulipas. 

tith. With respect to the Pacific coast States, the follow- 
ing conclusions have been arrived at: that the rains are 
moderate in those districts situated to the south of the State 
of Sinaloa, as well as in the larger proportion of the dis- 
tricts in the States of Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, Oaxaca, 
and the territory of Tepic, whilst they are abundant in all 
the northern and central parts of Sinaloa as well as in the 
greater part of Chiapas. 

The following table has been officially published, show- 
ing the annual rainfall in different parts of the Kepublic: 



Aguascalientes 591 .0 

Campec&e 833.2 

Colima 1052.9 

Cordoba (Veracruz) 2798.5 

Cuernavaca (Morelos) 1105.4 

Guadalajara (Jalisco) 863.7 

Guadalcazar (San Luis Po- 

tosi) 1194.8 

Guanajuato 859.5 

Guaymas (Sonora) 711.2 

Huehuetoca (Mexico) 2282.9 

Huejutla (Hidalgo) 466.1 

Ixtacomitan (Chiapas) 4618.5 

Lagos (Jalisco) 866.6 

Leon (Guanajuato) 728.3 

Llano Grande (Guerrero) . . . 865.9 
Matamoros (Tamaulipas)... 815.4 

Mazatlan (Sinaloa) 822.2 

Merida (Yucatan) ". . 913.0 

Mexico (Federal District) 

Central Observatory 607.4 

Mexico (Federal Dist.) Pre- 
paratory Nat. School 701.6 

Mirador (Farm) Veracruz. .2130. 5 



Monterrey (Nuevo Leon)... 744.0 

Morelia (Michoacan) 648.4 

Oaxaca 715.3 

Orizaba (Veracruz) 2510.0 

Pabellon (Farm) Aguas- 
calientes <■ 506.6 

Patzcuaro (Michoacan) 1158.6 

Pinos (Zacatecas) 1007. 

Puebla (Catholic College).. 1319. 5 

Puebla (State College) 932.9 

Queretaro 594.2 

Saltillo (Coahuila) 554.1 

San Juan del Eio (Quere- 
taro) 500.6 

San Luis Potosi 393.4 

San Nicolas Buenavista (F. 584.7 
D.) 

Tezuitlan (Pueblo) 1530.9 

Tinaja (San Luis Potosi) 766.0 

Tlacotalpam (Veracruz) 1823.7 

Toluca (Mexico) 678.0 

Tuxpan (Veracruz) 1532.0 

Veracruz 1319.1 

Zacatecas 819.1 



18 



274 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



WINDS. 

Very little is known with regard to the winds of this 
Republic, either with respect to their prevalent direc- 
tion, or to their velocity. With respect to their tem- 
perature, and degree of humidity, a little information has 
been obtained, but only as regards the valley of Mexico. 

The prevailing directions of the wind are as follows in 
the localities which are shown : 

Guadalajara "W . 

Guanajuato S. W. 

Leon N. N. E. 

Mazatlan N. E. & N. W. 

Mexico • N. W. 

Pabellon (Aguas Calientes) W. S. W. 

Puebla (State College) N. E. 

Puebla (Catholic College) S. 

San Luis Potosi E. 

Zacatecas S. E. 

From the above table it will be seen that the prevailing 
winds in most of these localities are from a westerly 
direction, those from the north and south being less fre- 
quent, whilst those from the east are very rare. 

With respect to the velocity of the winds we have the 
data compiled in fourteen meteorological stations, and from 
these we can deduce that the average velocity is about 
moderate in Zacatecas ; very moderate in Amecameca, 
Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Mazatlan, Pabellon (Aguascal- 
ientes), Puebla, (the two observatories), San Luis Potosi, 
and Tuxpan, and almost insensible in Aguascalientes, 
Leon, (Guanajuato), Mexico, (Central Observatory) and 
Toluca. 

With respect to the humidity of the different winds in 
the valley of Mexico, they can be placed as follows: 1st, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



275 



N. W. ; 2d, W. ; 3d, S. W. and N. ; 4th, S. ; 5th, S. E.; 
6th, E., and 7th, N. E. 

With respect to temperature the winds come in the fol- 
lowing order, beginning with the coolest : 1st, N. W. ; 2d, 
W. ; 3d, N. ; 4th, S. W. ; 5th, S. and N. E. ; 6th, E. ; and 
7th', S. E. ; * 

We now present a general summary of the meteorolog- 
ical observations taken in different parts of the Mexican 
Eepublic, only noting that the observations taken in Mexico 
and Puebla include the last eleven years, whilst the other 
localities have only reported observations for ten years. 



* These data have been extracted from " The Essays on Climato- 
logical and Medical Geography," of which we have spoken above. 




DRAINING THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 
Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. Notchistongo. 



276 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



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AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



277 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE STATES. 

I. Up to this point we have considered the territory of 
the Kepublic as a whole, making but little mention of its 
political division ; we now propose to enter into details on 
this subject. 

The United Mexican States, embracing 27 States, 2 Ter- 
ritories, 1 Federal District and the islands adjacent in both 
seas. 

The following is the political division: 



CENTRAL STATES. 



STATES. 



Dis- 


Divi- 


Can- 


De- 


tricts. 


sions. 


tons. 


part- 
ments. 



CAPITALS 



Distrito Federal . 
Aguascalientes... 
S. Luis Potosi. .. 

Guanajuato 

Queretaro 

Hidalgo 

Mexico 

Morelos , 

Tlaxcala 

Puebla 

Rurango . 

Zacatecas , 



Mexico. 

Aguascalientes. 

S. Luis Potosi. 

Guanajuato. 

Queretaro. 

Pachuca. 

Toluca. 

Cuernavaca. 

Tlaxcala. 

Puebla. 

Durango. 

Zacatecas. 



278 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



NORTHERN STATES. 



STATES. 


Dis- 
tricts. 


Divi- 
sions. 


Can- 
tons. 


De- 
part- 
ments. 


CAPITALS. 




9 
10 

5 
10 




























Saltillo. 










Monterrey. 











GULP STATES. 



Tamaulipas. 
Veracruz. .. 
Tabasco. . . 
Campeche . . 
Yucatan . . . 



18 



C. Victoria. 

Jalapa. 

S. Juan Btta. 

Campeche. 

Merida. 



PACIFIC STATES. 



Michoacan 

Colima 

Guerrero 

Jalisco 

Sinaloa 

Chiapas 

Oaxaca 

Territory of Tepic. 
Lower California. . . 



Totales 



177 



6 

1 

118 



11 



29 



50 



Morelia. 

Colima. 

Chilpancingo. 

Guadalajara. 

Culiacan. 

S. Cristobal L. C. 

Oaxaca. 

Tepic. 

La Paz. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



279 



TERRITORIAL EXTENSION. 

We have here the territorial extension of the States and 
Territories of the Bepublic. 

CENTRAL STATES. 

MIRIAEAS. 

Distrito Federal I » 200 

Aguas Calientes 7 > G44 

Durango 98,470 

Guanajuato 29,458 

Hidalgo 23 > 101 

Mexico 23,957 

Morelos 7, 184 

Puebla • 31 > 616 

Queretaro 9 > 215 

S. Luis Potosi '••••■ 65,586 

Tlaxcala 4 > 132 

Zacatecas 64,138 

NORTHERN STATES. 

Chihuahua 227,468 

Coahuila 164,690 

Nuevo Leon < 61,118 

Sonora..., 199,224 

GULF STATES. 

Campeche ■ 46,855 

Tabasco • • 26,094 

Tamaulipas 83,234 

Veracruz 75.651 

Yucatan 91,201 

PACIFIC STATES. 

Lower California 151,109 

Colima 5 ' 887 

Chiapas 70 > 524 

Guerrero • ■ 64 > 756 

Jalisco • 82,503 

Michoacan • 59,261 

Oaxaca 91 » 6G4 

Sinaloa 87 > 231 

Tepic 29 ' 211 

Total . 1,983,382 



280 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



ISLANDS. 

The adjacent Islands which make up the whole of the 
Territory of the Eepublic, are as follows : 

Guadalupe (Pacific Ocean) 208 



Cedros 
Sta.Margarita 
Creciente 
Revillagigedo 
Tres Marias 



343 

128 

52 

41 

53 



Tiburon (Gulf of California 96 

Angel de la Guarda " " 636 

Montagne " " 42 

SanEsteban " " 38 

San Lorenzo " " 22 

San Jose " " 182 

Cerralvo " " 152 

Santa Catalina " " 38 

Monserrate " " 25 

Carmen " " 144 

San Marcos " " 28 

Partida " " 24 

Cozumel (Gulf of Mexico) . 406 

Mujeres " " 4 

Espiritu Santo " " 68 

Other small islands < 82 



Total , 3,681 



ASTRONOMICAL POSITION OF THE CAPITALS. 

The latest works of the Department of Chartography, 
subordinate to the Department of Colonization, Industry 
and Commerce, undertaken with a view of determining the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



281 



astronomical position of the Capitals of the States, show 
the following results: 



CAPITALS. 



Latitude, N. 



Longitude. 



Sonora 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Nuevo Leon 

Tamaulipas 

Sinaloa 

Durango 

Zacatecas. 

Aguascalientes 

S. Luis Potosi 

Jalisco 

Colima 

Michoacan 

Guanajuato 

Quer6taro 

Hidalgo 

Veracruz 

Mexico 

Pnebla 

Tlaxcala 

Morelos 

Guerrero 

Oaxaca 

Tabasco 

Chiapas 

Yucatan 

Campeche 

Distrito Federal 

Lower California 

do ■ 

Territorio de Tepic. . . . 



Hermosillo 

Chihuahua 

Saltillo 

Monterrey 

Ciudad Victoria 

Culiacan 

Durango 

Zacatecas 

Aguascalientes. 
S. Luis Potosi .. 
Guadalajara — 

Colima 

Morelia 

Guanajuato .... 

Quere"taro 

Pachuca 

Jalapa • 

Toluca 

Puebla 

Tlaxcala 

Cuernavaca 
Chilpancingo . . 

Oaxaca 

S. Juan Bautista 
S. Cristobal, L.C 

M6rida 

Campeche .... 

Mexico 

Ensenada .... 

La Paz 

Tepic 



29° 4' 

28 38 
25 25 
25 40 

23 42 

24 48 
24 1 
22 46 

21 53 

22 9 

20 40 
19 14 

19 42 

21 

20 35 
20 7 
19 31 
19 27 
19 2 

19 19 

18 55 
17 33 
17 3 
17 59 
16 44 

20 55 

19 49 
19 26 
31 51 

29 16 

21 30 



37" 

23 
20 
15 
54 

4 
29 
35 

1 
10 
45 
21 
13 
58 
42 
35 
33 
28 
30 

4 

2 
10 
28 
37 
10 
40 
50 

5 
50 
18 
47 



11° 47' 
6 56 



1 
1 

8 
5 
3 
3 
1 
4 
4 
2 
2 
1 

23 
2 13 
32 
56 
53 
6 
22 
2 25 
6 6 
6 59 
9 24 
8 33 

17 31 
13 33 
5 43 



55" O 

23 " 

24 « 

7 E. 
1 " 

31 O. 

55 " 
22 " 

56 " 
20 " 
31 " 
47 « 

29 " 

8 « 

20 " 
19 E. 
12 " 
47 O. 

6 E. 

45 " 

42 O. 

3 E. 

21 " 
28 
48 

30 " aprox. 
30 " 



14 
44 
15 



aprox. 



Note. — The meridian line of reference used to determine the de- 
grees of longitude is one which passes through the east tower of the 
Cathedral in the City of Mexico. 



282 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTEE III. 

POPULATION AND RACES. 
BEGINNING OF MEXICAN CIVILIZATION. 

I. The population and even the civilization of the Mexi- 
can Republic, does not date, as is well known, frond the 
discovery of America. The European conquest did no 
more than modify said civilization and purify it from 
savage customs by introducing higher forms of civilization, 
improvements in industries, architecture, arts and sciences, 
a more enlightened religious belief by abolishing human 
sacrifices and many forms of superstitious rites or worship. 
The ancient history of the Mexicans still remains an enigma 
next to impossible of solution. Said solution, however, 
not being essential to the object of this work, we 
will not enter into details on the subject, contenting our- 
selves with casting a rapid glance over the aforesaid civili- 
zation. 

It is beyond a doubt that America was inhabited many 
centuries before the Christian era, though not a trace re- 
mains of the aborigines. Those who have imagined that 
they saw in the Tollan or Tulan of the Mexicans the ultima 
Tulce of Seneca, deducting therefrom the resulting theory 
of immigrations, have gone grievously astray, since, if not 
entirely imaginary, the Tulse in question existed, at any rate, 
subsequent to the peopling of America. The probability 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 283 

is no doubt that the Tula of the Romans as well as the 
Tila of the Icelander geographer, Carl Rafn, had no actual 
existence. 

America was not peopled by any one current of immigra- 
tion, but by several. The Toltecs came from the northwest, 
be their point of departure what it may, and they came, 
perhaps, obeying through a long series of centuries, the 
geological phenomenon of the steady cooling of the north- 
ern regions. There is a good reason for supposing that 
many hundreds or thousands of years ago, Greenland was 
occupied by a flourishing nation. 

Of the most ancient ruins of all, there are not now even 
traces ; of the comparatively modern, there exist fortifica- 
tions and remains of buildings, principally in the valleys of 
Ohio, Missouri and Mississippi. The emigrations from the 
regions of the north must have been carried out without any 
fixed plan, and, possibly, with intestine wars as their 
largely determining cause. Tula or Tollan must have been 
the name of the northern nation that gave birth to these emi- 
grations, and Tolteca or Nahoa the language spoken there, 
modified to a greater or less extent in the different districts 
or States of the said nation. This explains the persistency 
of the Nahoa geographical names throughout Mexico 
and Central America. Of the northern emigrants some 
went southwards along the coast of the Pacific, and between 
it and the western mountain ranges ; they were probably the 
first to arrive at Chiapas and Guatemala, and were also 
those who in the course of centuries, attained to a high 
degree of prosperity and civilization in said localities, and 
became the authors of the palenquian civilization, as 
Orozco y Berra called it. Perhaps Violet-Le-Duc was 
not altogether wrong in supposing that inhabitants of 
Arian or even of the African race, must have preceded in 
Yucatan and Chiapas, principally, the Toltec emigrants. 



284 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

A study of the bass reliefs of Chichen Itza and others of 
the monuments of Yucatan, incites to this belief, the 
more so that the conquerers encountered on the Peninsula 
in question, types which were perfectly in accordance 
with those found amongst the inhabitants of northern 
Europe.* 

Another of the northern immigrations must have been 
the one which left traces of its passage in Missouri, Illinois 
and Ohio, and which remained awhile in the region now 
represented by our northern States. Buried in the fast- 
nesses of the eastern Sierra Madre, fighting for possession 
of the valleys and perhaps of the water supply, these 
immigrants subdivided, retaining in the course of the cen- 
turies no other trace of their relationship than the somewhat 
faint one of language. The most considerable of the immi- 
grations from the north must have taken place when their 
predecessors who occupied Chiapas and Yucatan, had at- 
tained to a high degree of civilization ; had become merged 
in the aboriginal races, white and black, spoken of in the 
Papol-Vuh, and had extended their dominion southwards 
to Guatemala and northwards to Oaxaca and Yucatan. 
Perhaps the palenquiau civilization had even then begun to 
decay and the zapotecan to flourish. The ruins of Izamal, 
Tizcocob, Acamec and Chichen-Itza are worthy of the 
attention due to relics of an advanced civilization. The 
ruins of Mitla, in Oaxaca, belong clearly to a new priest- 
ruled and powerful nation ; they have somewhat of Egypt- 
ian art and much of Roman. In the ruins of Yucatan and 
Oaxaca, as compared with those of Chiapas, there is 
visible a renaissance. The former are products of a more 
refined taste, while at the same time they indicate their 
probable relationship with the latter. 



* Violet-Le-Duc. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 285 

The teocalli is preserved; the pilasters or intercolumns 
without base or capital, begin to appear in the Oaxaca and 
Yucatan remains,! in a rudimentary fashion ; as do also 
the arch and the vault. The joints are better adjusted, the 
angles purer, the levels irreproachable ; so much so that, 
according to the author already cited, " there were only 
needed evidences of the carver's art, or designs which 
evinced artificers of considerable knowledge and skill, to 
complete the architecture." The most important of the 
immigrations was, as we have said, the one of which me- 
morials exist in traditions, hieroglyphics and writings. 
The great Toltec peregrination carried out by a large num- 
ber of tribes who kept settling along the road, must have 
taken place at a period when the territory of Anahuac was 
already well populated. Trade or dissensions went on 
dividing up the general body of the emigrants, leaving them 
stationed along the banks of the Gila, in territory which 
formed part of the State of Sonora; in Casas Grandes of 
the State of Chihuahua; in El Zope, in Durango; in La 
Quemada, in Zacatecas; in Cholula of the State of Puebla 
and in San Juan de Teotihuacan in the State of Mexico. 
Extending immediately southwards, they carried along in 
their course the Mistecos, Chuchones, Popolocos, Amuchcos 
and other tribes who in former times occupied the region of 
the valley of Mexico and the coasts of the Gulf and the 
Pacific. When the Aztecs arrived in the country occupied 
or conquered many centuries before by individuals of their 
own race the descendants of these last were disappearing in 
Central America, leaving behind them their magnificent 
monuments, and the Zapoteca branch was flourishing. 
War, perhaps, was what gave the death-blow to these 
ancient civilizations. It is time to leave the subject. 



t Reliable authors are of opinion that the buildings of Yucatan 
belong to the Maya and Toltec civilizations. 



286 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

What is said will have been sufficient to give an idea of the 
antiquity of the Mexican population.* 



THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF MEXICO. 

II. — The Empire of Anahuac had at the time of the 
conquest over 30,000,000 inhabitants. In the territory of 
Mexico, Toluca, Texcoco and Puebla were 1,500,000 dwell- 
ing houses capable of lodging 9,120,000 persons. These 
figures are not exaggerated and are worthy of belief since 
they can be substantiated by creditable dates, for in the 
valley of Mexico, alone, from 1524 to 1540, there were 
more than 6,000,000 of Indians baptized. The statistics 
drawn up by Cortez of the Valley of Anahuac, shows that 
there were 620,000 families composed of four to ten indi- 
viduals each, and, according to the information furnished 
to Charles V., there must have been 3,720,000 inhabitants. 
In addition to this, were the 655 villages in the immediate 
vicinity of Tenoxtitlan which numbered 5,400,000 individ- 
uals, making a total of 9,120,000, of which we have made 
mention. To this total sum may be added the number of in- 
habitants of Morelia, Potosi, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and 
Yucatan, estimated, approximately, at 20,880,000, which 
sums up the total amount to 30,000,000 inhabitants. This 
number decreased with great rapidity from the cruelty of 
the conquerors, the epidemics and famine. Within a period 
of 36 years, from 1520 to 1576, three and one-half millions 
of the native inhabitants died. The depopulation of the 
country continued at such a rate that by the year 1793 the 
total population of New Spain, without including the Pro- 
vinces of Guadalajara, Veracruz and Coahuila, scarcely 
amounted to 3,865,499 individuals. The following table 



* In different parts of this book the ancient Mexican civilization is 
treated of. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 287 

shows the increase of the population of Mexico for 95 
years : 

Years. Authorities. 

1793. .Viceroy Count of Revillagigedo 4 

1795.. " " 5 

1 803-. Humboldt 5 

1808.. <c 6 

1810. .D Fernando Navarro y Noriega 6 

1815.. D John Salas 5 

1824..Poinsetts 6 

1830..Burcardts , 7 

1831 . . A. J. Valdes 6 

183G . . Information of the States and Territories 7 

1839 . . Geographical and Statistical Society 7 

1852.. D. Juan N. Almonte 7 

1854.. Recorder of the Minister of Fomentation 7 

1855..Lerdo de Tejada 7 

1856.. " " 7 

1856.. Garcia Cubas 8 

1856 . . Orozco y Berra 8 

1862 . . J. M. Perez Hernandez 8 

1 869 . . Garcia Cubas 8 

1872 . . Secretary of the Interior 9 

1873 . .Bias Balcarcel 8 

1 874 . . Garcia Cubas 9 

1878.. Secretary of the Interior 9 

1880. .Emiliano Busto 9 

1882.. Vodo Von Gliimun 10 

1886 . . Garcia Cubas 10 

1888 . . Direction of Statistics , 11 

1890 11 

1892 . 11 

From this data it will be seen that from the years 1852 to 
1862 the population increased at the rate of 9.58 per 
cent; from 1862 to 1872, 8.34 per cent; from to 1872 
to 1882, 9.94 per cent; from 1882 to 1892, 18.29 per 

cent. This calculation must be accepted only as an 
approximate one, as all the censuses which have been 
taken at the various periods mentioned contain glaring 
imperfections. 



babita 
483 


,nts. 
680 


200 


000 


837 


100 


500 


000 


122 


354 


764 


731 


500 


000 


996 


000 


382 


284 


843 


132 


044 


140 


661 


919 


853 


395 


661 


520 


859 


564 


283 


088 


287 


413 


396 


524 


743 


614 


097 


056 


994 


724 


343 


470 


384 


193 


577 


279 


001 


884 


791 


685 


490 


830 


632 


924 


834 


822 



288 



THE RICHES OP MEXICO 



Population of the States. 

III. The population of the States and capitals according 
to the last data, is as follows: — 



Middle states. Capitals. 

Federal District . . Mexico 

Aguascalientes . . . .Aguascalientes. . 

S.Luis Potosi S. Luis Potosi.. 

Guanajuato Guanaj uato 

Queretaro Quere"taro 

Hidalgo .". Pachuca 

Mexico Toluca 

Morelos . . Cuernavaca 

Tlaxcala Tlaxcala. ....... 

Puebla Puebla 

Durango Durango 

Zacatecas Zacatecas 

Northern States. 

Chihuahua Chihuahua 

Coahuila Saltillo 

Nuevo Leon Monterey 

Sonora Hermosillo 

Tamaulipas C. Victoria 

Gulf States. 

Veracruz Jalapa 

Tabasco S. Juan Btta .... 

Campeche Campeche 

Yucatan Merida 

Pacific States. 

Chiapas » . . . S. Cristobal L. C . 

Oaxaca Oaxaca 

Guerrero Chilpancingo 

Michoacan Morelia 

Colima Colima 

Jalisco Guadalajara 

Sinaloa Culiacan 

Territory of Lower I Lpaz 

California....... J 

Territory of Tepic.Tepic 



In the 


In other places Total in 


Capitals. 


of the State. 


each State, 


329,535 


121,711 


451,246 


32,355 


89,571 


121,926 


62,573 


483,874 


546,447 


52,112 


855,004 


1,007,116 


23,520 


190,005 


213,525 


25,000 


469,212 


494,212 


11,585 


786,895 


798,480 


8,195 


143,345 


151,540 


6,771 


141,217 


147,988 


78,530 


760,938 


839,468 


24,800 


241,131 


265,931 


20,722 


506,244 


526,966 


13,128 


'284,945 


298,073 


25,801 


162,199 


188,000 


40,703 


231,284 


271,987- 


11,883 


154,009 


165,892 


10,092 


179,047 


189,139 


11,705 


630,119 


641,824 


8,536 


117,464 


125,000 


18,700 


72,480 


91,180 


32,000 


243,506 


275,506 


20,000 


279,941 


299,941 


28,827 


776,022 


806,845 


6,500 


332,635 


339,135 


26,974 


S07,949 


834,923 


25,124 


44,423 


69,547 


95,000 


1,066,709 


1,284,614 


9,487 


214,197 


223,684 


6,093 


28,575 


34,668 


14,000 


116,019 


130,019 



Grand Total. 



11,834,822 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



289 



POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES. 

The following table shows the actual population of the 
principal Mexican cities. 

CITIES HAVING 100,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 
states . Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 

Federal District Mexico City 329,535 

Jalisco ....Guadalajara " ••••• 95 > 000 

Puebla Puebla " 78,530 

San Luis Potosi. ••••.... San LuisPotosi « 62,57. 

Guanajuato Guanajuato 



« 52,112 



LOCALITIES HAVING 20,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 

Guanajuato Leon City 47,739 

Nuevo Leon Monterrey *J» U J 

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes " 32,d55 

* . W^riria " 32,000 

Yucatan Mencla » 

Oaxaca Oaxaca 28,827 

Michoacan Morelia " 26.J74 

Coahuila Saltillo : " 25,801 

Hidalgo Pachuca " 2o,000 

Durango Durango " 24,800 

Guanajuato Celaya " 24,b70 

Queretaro Queretaro... • Z6 f~» 

Jalisco Ciudad Guzman " 23,205 

Colima Colima " 25,1-4 

Guanajuato Allende - 21, 748 

Zacatecas Zacatecas ^>'^ 

Chiapas San Cristobal L.C « 20,000 

Veracruz Veracruz " 26,000 

LOCALITIES HAVING 10,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 

Veracruz Orizaba City 19,775 

Campeche Campeche " 18,700 

Yucatan Tinum Town 18,370 

Zacatecas Guadalupe Village 16,225 

Guanajuato Silao City 15,739 

San Luis Potosi Moctezuma " 15,666 

Guanajuato Irapuato Village 14,778 

Chiapa3 San Bartolome" City 14,669 

Chiapas Chamula Town 14,500 

19 



290 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

States. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 

Federal District Xochimilco Town 14,373 

Guanajuato Salvatierra City 14,322 

Jalisco Lagos " 14,297 

Chiapas Comitan " 14,000 

Zacatecas Ciudad Garcia " 14,000 

Territory of Tepic Tepic " 14,000 

Chihuahua Chihuahua " 13,128 

Zacatecas Fresnillo " 13,021 

Sinaloa Mazatlan " 12,852 

Federal District Tacubaya " 12,027 

Michoacan ^ Uruapan " 12,000 

Jalisco Ameca City 12,000 

Jalisco Autlan « 12,000 

Sonora Hermosillo " 11,883 

Veracruz ....Jalapa " 11,705 

Mexico Toluca " 11,585 

Jalisco Teocuitatlan Town 11,286 

Michoacan Piedad Cabadas City 11,142 

Jalisco Sayula " ........ 10,655 

Federal District San Augel Town 10,580 

Michoacan Angangueo " 10,473 

Michoacan -Sahuayo " — 10,400 

Tamaulipas Ciudad Victoria City 10,092 

Coahuila Monclova " 10,000 

Queretaro San Juan del Rio " 10,000 

LOCALITIES HAVING 5,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 

Guanajuato Salamanca Village 9,992 

Jalisco Cocula City 9,936 

Tamaulipas Matamoros " 9,882 

Sinaloa Culiacan City 9,487 

Oaxaca Juchitan Village 9,223 

Sinaloa Mocorito " 9,000 

Jalisco Etzatlan " 8,904 

Zacatecas Chalchihuites " 8,838 

Federal District Tlalpam Municipality.. 8,831 

Mexico Tenancingo City 8,682 

Tabasco San Juan Bautista " 8,530 

Michoacan Cotija Town 8,520 

Jalisco La Barca City 8,352 

Nuevo Leon Linares City 8,346 

San Luis Potosi Matehuala t( 8,300 

Mexico Amecameca. > " 8,207 

Morelos Guernavaca " . .... 8,195 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 291 

Statc3. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 

Hidalgo Tulancingo City 8,000 

Chihuahua Cusihuiriachic Town 8,000 

Chihuahua Hidalgo del Parral City 8,000 

Sinaloa Rosario Village 8,000 

Yucatan Hunucina. " 8,000 

San Luis Potosi Santa Maria del Bio .City 7,911 

Michoacan Pureparo Village 7,826 

Guanajuato Valley of Santiago " 7,800 

Jalisco Tuxpam Town 7,729 

Guanajuato Penjamo.. Village 7,657 

Veracruz San Andres Tuxtla " ... 7,585 

Guanajuato San Luis de la Paz " 7,582 

Michoacan Patzcuaro City 7,511 

Jalisco San Gabriel Village 7,500 

Oaxaca ..Tlaxiaco City 7,458 

Jalisco Ahualulco Village 7,428 

Zacatecas Vlllanueva City 7,398 

Jalisco Encarnacion de Diaz.... " 7,384 

Tlaxcala Huamantla " 7,381 

Guanajuato.. Dolores Hidalgo " 7,200 

Michoacan Puruandiro " 7,180 

Federal District Coyoacan Municipality. . 7,018 

Chihuahua.. Ciudad Juarez City 7,000 

Durango San Juan de Guadalupe.. " 7,000 

Zacatecas Sombrerete " 7,000 

San Luis Potosi Catorce " 6,988 

Guanajuato S. Francisco del Rincon. Village 6,950 

Chiapas .-Tenejapa Town 6,912 

Jalisco Arandas Village 6,839 

Guanajuato Santa Cruz " 6,836 

Tamaulipas Tampico City 6,792 

Federal District Atzcapotzalco Municipality.. 6,789 

Tlaxcala.... Tlaxcala City 6,771 

Guanajuato' San Felipe " •.... 6,700 

Oaxaca Tehuantepec " 6,674 

Zacatecas Valparaiso Village 6,623 

Federal District Guadalupe Hidalgo " 6,566 

San Luis Potosi Lagunillas " 6,632 

Michoacan Cheran Town 6,500 

Jalisco Ojuelos " 6,500 

Guerrero Chilpancingo City 6,500 

Coahuila Parras " 6,500 

Guanajuato. Moroleon Town 6,495 

Zacatecas Chupaderos " 6,448 



292 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

States. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 

Federal District Milpa Alta " « 6,362 

Jalisco Atotonilco el Alto City 6,242 

Coahuila Matamoros. < Village 6,215 

Guanajuato Yuriria " 6,178 

San Luis Potosi Rayon City 6,150 

Lower California La Paz " 6,093 

Durango Lerdo Village 6,077 

Yucatan .Ticul City 6,051 

Guerrero Tixtla de Guerrero " - 6,010 

Puebla Morelos... Village 6,000 

Guanajuato Acambaro " 5,990 

Michoacan Purepero " 5,965 

Federal District Hastahuacan Municipality.. 5,910 

Federal District Ixtapalapan " •• 5,825 

Sonora Alamos City 5,802 

Zacatecas Veta Grande '....Town 5,801 

Aguascalientes Rincon de Romos City 5,790 

San Luis Potosi Guadalcazar " 5,640 

Coahuila Sierra Mojada Village 5,600 

Zacatecas Ortega or Rio Grande .. . " 5,565 

Chiapas Tuxtla Gutz City 5,500 

Jalisco..... Jalostotitlan u 5,485 

Guanajuato Comonfort " 5,394 

Veracruz Coatepec City 5,362 

Morelos Yautepec " • 5.361 

Federal District. Tlahuac Municipality. . 5,271 

Oaxaca Villa Alvarez Village 5,268 

Puebla Tehuacan \ .City 5,232 

Michoacan Jiquilpem Town 5,220 

Guanajuato Iturbide Village 5,210 

Jalisco Tepatitlan ..Town 5,205 

Sonora Guayraas City 5,200 

Mexico. Zutnpango " »••• 5,145 

Aguascalientes Jesus Maria Town 5,125 

Jalisco Zapotiltic " 5,120 

Michoacan Tanhuato " 5,060 

Chiapas ... Tapachula City 5,046 

Jalisco Tecolotlan Town 5,029 

■ Yucatan Valladolid City... 5,010 

Zacatecas. Pinos " 5,000 

Jalisco Zapotitlan Town 5,000 

Veracruz Teocelo " ••• 5,000 

Sonora Ures City 5,000 

Veracruz Cordova • •• " • 5,500 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



293 



The Pacific States comprises Lower California, Colima, 
Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Sinaloa and 
the Territory of Tepic, population 4,023,376. 

The Gulf States are Campeche, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, 
Veracruz and Yucatan, population 1,322.649. 

The middle States, Federal District, Aguascalientes, S. 
LuisPotosi, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, Mexico, More- 
los, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Durango and Zacatecas, population, 
5,564.845. 

While those of the north, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila 
and Nuevo Leon scarcely amount to population, 923,952. 

We give the comparative density of each of the Federal 
States of the Republic : 



States. Area Area 

Miryaras. Square 

Miles.* 

Federal District.. 376 975 

Aguascalientes — 16 42 

S. LuisPotosi 8 20 

Guanajuato 34 88 

Queretaro 23 67 

Hidalgo 21 61 

Mexico 33 102 

Morelos 21 85 

Tlaxcala 35 91 

Puebla 26 70 

Durango 3 6 

Zacatecas 8 23 

Sonora § 2 

Chihuahua 1 4 

Coahuila 1 3 

Nuevo Leon 4 12 



States. Area Area 

Miryaras. Square 
Miles. 
Lower California 

(Ter.) i | 

Chiapas 4 19 

Colima 11 20 

Sinaloa 3 6 

Jalisco 15 33 

Michoacan 14 35 

Guerrero 5 14 

Oaxaca 9 24 

Territory of Tepic 5 10 

Tamaulipas 2 7 

Veracruz ......... 8 24 

Tabasco.. 5 10 

Campeche 2 4 

Yucatan 3 9 



We see that the Central States, especially those com- 
prising the Valley of Anahuac, have the most population ; 
the number of inhabitants per each square kilometer is less 



* The estimate on square miles belong to the Bureau of the American 
Republics, Washington, U. S. A. 



294 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

in the region of the southwest; still diminishing consider- 
ably more in the Gulf States; as much as the rich and 
endless plains and valleys of the northern region, there are 
found but few inhabitants. In extensive sections of the 
Northern Frontier there can scarcely be counted a fraction 
of an inhabitant to the square kilometer. The causes of 
this region not being inhabited are various, among others, 
the inroads of the hordes of savages, which from the most 
remote periods have pillaged those regions ; and the in- 
security of persons and property which became proverbial 
there during the revolutionary epochs. Among the States 
of the Pacific the richest of them are Chiapas, Sinaloa and 
Oaxaca, which are found equally uninhabited ; and notwith- 
standing the great wealth of these sections, they remain in 
a state of nature, as two-thirds of the population is com- 
posed of Indians, which contribute very little to the 
local riches. In like manner an attentive observer 
may remark the former condition of the same or greater 
irregularity with which the population is distributed 
in the Republic, who have no regard, either remotely or in 
forecasting the general laws of the climate, for the natural 
condition and riches of the lands, or connections with the 
centers of trade. This is more observable when a general 
study of the State is made, and thence passing to that of 
distinct localities. Along the borders of the western 
Sierra Madre, the population abounds in an uncivilized 
state, and absolutely isolated. All this is owing principally 
to the topographical configuration of the territory, which 
makes it difficult for the increase of the population ; they 
isolate themselves in communities from communication 
with the rest of the world, whose members seldom leave 
their homes in search of better lands and surroundings, 
simply content with their unpropitious circumstances, and 
this is one of the principal causes of the state of back- 
wardness of civilization in this Republic. This defect in 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 295 

the progress of our nation is the lack of energy among the 
people, who, collectively, submit in stolid indifference to 
their unfavorable condition without actively exercising 
their intelligence to improve their circumstances. 

RACES PREDOMINANT RACES. 

IV. The present predominating race in Mexico is not 
the Indian, as in the times previous to the conquest, nor 
the Spanish race as in the time of government by Viceroys, 
or even the Creole as in the first years of the Independence, 
but a people springing from a commingling of the blood of 
the Spanish and American. The European and Indian 
have amalgamated to such an extent that comparatively 
few of the distinct races excel in Mexico. Very few 
Europeans become naturalized citizens of the country, and 
as for the Indians they live in nearly absolute independence, 
as is the case with those who inhabit the mountains of Chia- 
pas and Oaxaca ; the one in a semibarbaric, the other in a 
secluded manner; either in a lamentable and fallen state, as 
in the central table lands, or next to the barbaric, as in 
Sonora and Chihuahua. The Indians, by virtue of their 
endowments received, are pre-eminent in aptitude for any 
kind of accomplishment, and will not separate them- 
selves from their tribal customs to join in the general 
movement of progress and civilization and the uniting 
of their race with the more intelligent one. The 
Spanish-American, which forms an energetic race, 
improved by the amalgamation, has preserved much 
of the Indian tenacity, endurance in adversity, and their 
war spirit and inclination to strife ; while from the Spaniards 
he has derived his mental qualifications and a restless, 
chivalrous spirit with not a little of his lack of practical 
common sense. The mixed race are the managers of the 
industries, directors of the finances, and form the chief 



296 THE EICIIES OF MEXICO 

portion of the tax-paying class of Mexico. The Indian 
stupefied and discouraged by the oppression of the Span- 
iard, and degenerated by superstition, stili finds himself 
unable to shake off the inertia, which has had its consum- 
ing effect, not for the want of intellectual capacities, but 
because the race is weighted down with the two great 
elements of degeneration, viz : oppression and fanaticism, 
which prevent it from rising above its degraded condition. 
The horde of semi-barbarians of Yucatan are obedient to 
only two motives, hate and detestation for the white race 
and love of the priests. Notwithstanding this, it would be 
ridiculous at the present day to enter into a discussion as to 
the capacity of the Indians to " conceive abstract ideas," 
as in the time of Robertson, or to discuss their " strength 
and resistence," as in that of Dn. Benito Maria Moxo, which 
hardly conceded. But such subjects are not worthy to 
occupy too much attention from intelligent persons. There 
is scarcely in existence one solitary individual possessor of 
rudimentary ethnical knowledge, who would dare to doubt 
the moral gifts of the Indian or his physical resistence. 
The Indian, as a soldier, is sufficiently known to European 
nations, and in order to form an idea of his moral gifts, 
it is sufficient to read the story of Juarez, Ramirez, Alta- 
mirano and many others whose names have been, and will 
continue to be, handed down on the brightest page of history. 
Until now we have considered the Indian by comparison 
in the light of two extremes, from the highest grade of 
intelligence to that of the barbaric ; we have also spoken 
of the degenerate Indian ; and we will now consider him as 
one joined to civilization, that is to say, regenerated, or 
become amalgamated with the predominant race. The 
Indian, in order to attain the civilization of his more fortu- 
nate neighbor, has two roads before him, the army and 
the workshop. The army is a school and ladder for the 
Indian; the school where he can obtain a rudimentarv 




L. Batres Archeologist. 

IDOLS AND ANCIENT INDIAN TYPES. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 297 

education to place him on the road to securing higher posi- 
tions among the Spanish-American element; therefore, 
incidentally it may be stated that so long as there exists so 
large a number of Indians in Mexico, the reduction of the 
army, of which so much has been said, would be a cen- 
surable measure. 

Besides the army, the Indian has another road to civiliza- 
tion, — industry. In the factories and workshops he is placed 
in contact with the active and intelligent elements and will 
ere long receive the benefits of the stimulus; he com- 
mences in his new position by abandoning his dress, which 
is only so in name, and adopting that of the Spanish- 
American, finally acquiring intelligence and development 
of his moral faculties. 

The Spanish-American, to which race belongs the greater 
portion of the public functionaries and literary men of 
Mexico, has succeeded, after the most energetic efforts and 
with the material aid of the native Indian element, in 
reconstructing the national character, binding together all 
its parts, fusing its dissolvent elements in a common mass, 
and inspiring in all classes, with, the love of country, the 
spirit of true progress. 



ETHNOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION". 

Mr. Garcia Cubas furnished us with the following table 
of the three great races forming the population of the 
Republic: First race, European and Spanish American; 
second, mixed; third, Indian. 

19 per cent of the first 2,165,185 

43 per cent of the second 4,900,156 

38 per cent of the third 4,330,371 



11,395,712 



298 the riches of Mexico 

According to the data of the last books of Mr. Garcia 
Cubas, — 1885 and 1889 — the proportion among Indians, 
whites and mixed, has been the same during the period 
mentioned, which is not the actual fact. The proportional 
rate of the Indian race is stationary or decreasing, while 
the Spanish American increases on his own account, and by 
reason of the decrease of the Indian. As a proof of this, 
we will say that our Republic has been increasing annually 
in 15.51 per 1,000, and of this amount only three per 1,000 
belong to the Indian race, perhaps less than that. We 
may expect that before a century, the greater part of the 
Indian race will be amalgamated with the predominating one 
and will disappear ; as an example we may state that in the 
northern frontier, there existed in former times so large a 
number of Indians that they could form a great army; but 
they have been gradually disappearing for many causes, 
and they will ultimately cease to exist as a distinct race. 
In the year 1849, the Minister of War, Grl. Mariano 
Arista, gave the following information: "There are a 
great many Indians in a vast extension of territory from 
Puerco River to Las Nueces, who live by hunting the 
cibolo — the Mexican bull — and many other animals which 
abound in those fertile places ; and according to the infor- 
mation furnished me by different persons whom I introduced 
among the Indians, all the savage tribes could form an 
army of over 30,000 individuals, leaving the necessary 
number for the protection of their families." That is to 
say, that in only one portion of the States of Chihuahua, 
Texas, Nuevo Leon and Coahuila, there were over 250,000 
savage Indians, not including the peaceful natives, amount- 
ing to 80,000, which gives a total of 330,000 Indians in a 
territory of 180,000 square kilometers. At present in the 
same territory there can scarcely be found 25,000 to 30,000 
Indians. 

Towards the coast of the Gulf, the Indian element is 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 299 

confounded with the mixed one ; but it is more remarkable 
in the Central Table. Towards the northwest the aborig- 
ines occupy the greatest portion of the Sierras Tarahu- 
mara, in Chihuahua aud a portion of the State of Sonora; 
but they commence to decrease towards the coast of the Pa- 
cific. In the Central States and in those of the southwest the 
Indians abound to the same extent as the white and mixed 
races ; and in the States of Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, 
Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan the number of 
Indians is greater than those of white and mixed combined. 
According to the classification of Mr. Francisco Pimen- 
tel, which is the best at the present day, the Indian race is 
subdivided in different groups, classified according to their 
languages, in the following manner : 

Native Mexican or Indian Tribes. — They are composed of the 
native Mexicans and Cuitlatecos, and are found in the States of Sinaloa, 
Jalisco, South of San Luis Potosi, Colima, Coasts of Michoacan, Guer- 
rero, Morelos, Mexico, Puebla, Federal District, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Vera- 
cruz, Aguascalientes, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Chiapas, and amount to 
1,849,000. 

Sonora Opata-Pima Tribe. — It is composed of the Opatas-Limas, 
Papagos, Yumas, Yaquis, Mayos, Tarahumaras, Coras, Huichales, Tepe- 
huanes and Acaxees, and are found in the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, 
Durango, Sinaloa, Jalisco and Zacatecas, amounting to 85,000. 

Guaicura and Cochimi Laimon Tribe. — This tribe amounted for- 
merly to more than 20,000 individuals, inhabiting the Peninsula of Lower 
California. At the present time it has been reduced in the northern 
region to 2,500. 

Seri Tribe. — It is found in the Island of Tiburon and in the coasts 
near the State of Sonora. It has decreased notably and at present it 
scarcely amounts to 200 individuals. 

Tarasca Tribe. — This is an ancient and powerful tribe, the ancient 
enemy of the Mexican one, and founder of Michoacan. It is found in 
the State of Michoacan and in some towns of the States of Jalisco and 
Guerrero. It has decreased on account of its amalgamation with the 
mixed race and amounts to 275,000. 

Zoque-Mixe Tribe. — It is composed of the Zoques, Mixes and Tapi- 
julapas and it is found in the States of Chiapas, Tabasco and especially 
in Oaxaca, amounting to 60,000. 



300 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Totonaca Tribe. — It is found in Sierra de Huauchinangotothe north 
of the State of Puebla, in the regions of Veracruz, adjoining Huastecos, 
between the rivers of Chachalacas and Cazones, and amounts to 90,000. 

Mixteco-Zapoteca Tribe. — It is one of the most important races 
"which is found in the State of Oaxaca, and in a portion of Guerrero and 
Puebla. It is comprised of Mixtecos, Zapotecos, Chuchones, Popolocos, 
Cuicatecos, Soltecos, Chatinos, Papabucos, Amusgos, or Musgos, Maza- 
tecos and Chinantecos, and amounts to 677,088. 

Matlalzinga or Pirinb-a Tribe. — This tribe is the founder of the 
City of Toluca. It is found in the Valley of Toluca, in the town of Charo 
of Michoacan, in San Martin and Santa Cruz of the District of Mascal- 
tepec del Valle, in San Juan Atzingo San Mateo Mexicalzingo, Calimaya 
and San Mateo Temascaltepec and amounts to 5,000. 

Maya Quiche Tribe. — It is composed of the Mayas or Tucatecos, 
Puneturoc, Lacandones, Petenes, Itzacs, Chafiabales, Comitecos and 
Tocolobales, Choles, Quiches, Tzotziles, Tzendales, M am es and Huaxtecos 
and amount to 456,283. 

Chontal Tribe. — It is found in the State of Tabasco, Guerrero 
Oaxaca and extends towards Guatemala and Nicaragua, amounting to 
31,000. 

Huave Tribe. — This tribe belongs to Nicaragua and is found in the 
districts of Juchitan, Tehuantepec and in the State of Chiapas, amount- 
ing to 3,800. 

Apache Tribe. — This is a savage tribe which is composed of Chirica- 
hues, Toatos, Mimbrefios, Gilenos, Mescaleros, Sacramentefios, .Carriza- 
lenos, Xicarillas, Mogollones, Lipanes, Faraones and Navajoes. These 
tribes are found in territories belonging to the United States and come 
very often to our territories. The number of those residing in the States 
of Chihuahua and Sonora can be estimated in 8,000. 

Othomi Tribe. — It is comprised of Othomies, inhabitants of the 
States of Guanajuato Queretaro West of Hidalgo, N. W. of Mexico ; the 
Serranos, inhabitants of Sierra Gorda in Guanajuato; Maxahuas in the 
district of Ixtlahuaca, Villa del Valle and in the Sierras of Tajimaroa, 
Tlapujahua and Zitacuaro; Pames in the Old Mission of Cerro Prieto, of 
Jacala, State of Hidalgo, in Santa Maria Acapulco, State of Queretaro, 
in Purisima de Arnedo and Xichi of the State of Guanajuato, but the 
greatest part of this tribe is found in the eastern districts of the State 
of San Luis Potosi, and the Jomares, or Mecos, are found in the chain of 
mountains of Guanajuato. The Othomies are found in the surroundings 
of the Capital of the Republic, in the town of Ixtenco in Tlaxcala and in 
the mountains between the Valley of Mexico and Toluca. The number 
of them is estimated in 704,734. The total of Indians of the different 
tribes amounts to 4,247,605. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



301 



The Spaniards, who form one of the elements or our race are found in 
the Mexican territory in the following manner: — 



STATES. 



Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas > 

Chihuahua 

Duraugo 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

Mexico 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon ••• 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San Luis Potosi — 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala. 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 

Federal District... 

Lower California . 

Territory of Tepic 



Total amount. 



76 

28 

84 

300 

91 

193 

112 

115 

296 

169 

114 

221 

472 

68 

294 

32 

35 

267 

99 

37 

1,935 

379 

59 

1,852 



71 



7,573 



10 

5 

51 

88 

18 

32 

62 

28 

29 

78 

44 

73 

113 

9 

9 

2 

4 

57 

43 

7 

693 

112 

21 

287 

3 

21 



1,980 



47 

15 

99 
239 

71 
146 
106 

83 
188 
157 

89 
202 
414 

43 
198 

20 

20 
217 
101 

23 
1,89 
296 

48 
1,665 



66 



6,616 



34 

16 
31 

130 
32 
72 
63 
42 

124 
74 
66 
75 

150 
30 
92 
13 
19 
90 
41 
17 

648 

176 
28 

436 

2 

18 

2,598 






24 
147 

84 



17 



86 
33 
135 
388 
109 
225 
174 
143 
325 
247 
158 
294 
585 

77 
303 

34 

39 
324 
142 

44 

2,628 

491 

80 

2,139 

3 

92 



339 9,553 



The preceding table, made upon request of the Spanish Minister, by 
the Statistical Secretary of the Department of Colonization, Industry and 
Commerce, has reference to the year 1887, and as will be seen by one oi 
the memorandums in said table, it is very imperfect for the reason that 
as a general rule, there is no mention made of the wives and children of 
the Spaniards, and of these many are not shown in the census taken. 
To the preceding total must be added the following :— ^ 

Former total a'.'Vj'iV.',!^ ' 

Immigrants remaining in the Republic, as per official data up to 

jgg9 z,oe» 

Calculations'based on the preceding immigration up to 1892 1,790 

33% of unregistered .'"'". 'qoa 

Calculation as to its capacity for increase in Spain 00± 

Probable total 17,717 



302 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER IY. 

IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION. 

Primary Laws. 

I. The first care of Spain, when the conquest was once 
an established fact, was to close up to the rest of the Con- 
tinent all the ports of her American possessions. Nay, she 
went further and limited the traffic so that it should be 
carried on only by certain favored persons and cities, the 
monoply falling especially to the share of Seville and Cadiz. 
These primitive regulations were ratified by royal decrees 
on the 15th of May, 1509, the 14th of September, 1519, 
and by others later on, because one issued on the 15th of 
January, 1529, empowering various ports to trade with 
America, produced no practical effect. A proclamation 
dated the 16th of July, 1561, and which gave rise to the 
system of freightage, restricted still more the interoceanic 
commerce. This state of things, with an occasional slight 
change, was prolonged for years and years until King 
Charles III. issued the ordinance or edict of free trade and 
which bore the date of 12th of October, 1778. This 
ordinance extended to thirteen Spanish ports the right of 
trading with New Spain and was a kind of precedent for 
that of 1799, by which trade was allowed between New 
Spain and neutral ports. We may suppose that it was at 
this time that exotic immigration into the Colonial territory 
began, that is, immigrants came here who were not from 
Spain, Asia or Africa. 

The decree of the Spanish Court, dated the 9th of Novem- 
ber, 1820, put a climax to the previous ones and withdrew the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 303 

ancient monoply of Veracruz. It gave the right to five ports 
in the Gulf to trade with Europe and the colonies, and in 
the Pacific it empowered those of Acapulco, San Bias and 
Mazatlan to do so. This regulation, made under pressing 
circumstances, preceded only a little the memorable event 
of Mexico's political emancipation (1821 ) and was promul- 
gated shortly before the decree of October 8th, 1823, by 
which when the territory of Mexico was opened to the com- 
merce of the world, it was closed to Spanish merchandise 
and Spanish ships. 

During the colonial epoch the restrictions laid upon 
foreigners were being fast broken through. Mining, which 
as is well known, is the irresistible loadstone of adventurers, 
was entirely forbidden to them until by virtue of a decree 
dated the 7th of October, 1823, the following laws were 
abrogated: Law 12, tit: 10, book 5, and law 5, tit. 18, 
book 6 of Summary of Castile; law 1, tit. 7, book 8, and 
those comprised under tit. 27, book 9 of the Indies Summary 
along with Art. 1, tit. 7 of the Mining Ordinances. It was 
due to the abrogation of this last that foreigners gained the 
right to acquire shares in mines, both free ones, and those 
for which they were liable to be assessed for damages or 
improvemets to the mine. Their rights, however, were 
limited when acquiring shares in non-working mines whether 
in registering new ones or in claiming abandoned ones. 
The first decree relating to colonization is dated the 14th of 
October, 1823, and by it the unoccupied lands of the new 
province which was to be formed out of Acayucan and 
Tehuantepec were destined for the establishment of natives 
and foreigners. In the following year, 1824, a law was 
passed on the 18th of August, which authorized foreigners 
to settle on national lands provided no one of them 
possessed an estate of more than one square league con- 
taining 5,000 varas of irrigated land, 4 producing season 
crops and 6 with watering-stations on them. 



304 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

This law provided that the lands situated within 20 
leagues of the inland boundary lines and within 10 of the 
coast line should not be colonized by foreigners, unless with 
the previous authorization of the Federal Executive. This 
regulation is still in force and has been ratified by later 
laws. In 1828, whilst the conspiracy of P. Arenas was still 
fresh in men's minds, and whilst the new institutions were 
little trusted and everything foreign was looked upon with 
alarm, the laws of the 12th of March and 14th of April 
were promulgated, and in accordance with them passports 
and naturalization were required of those who entered the 
country. 

These laws were passed only a little more than a year 
before the memorable one of the 20th of May, 1829, for 
the expulsion of the Spaniards which crowned the initiative 
already taken by the States of Jalisco, Michoacan and 
Mexico. 

In 1842 the law of the 14th of March laid down that 
foreigners could possess landed property, but not more than 
two farms in the same department, and no proprietorship of 
land whatever on the frontiers or coast. It was also ruled 
that foreigners who remained out of the Republic for more 
than two consecutive years should lose all rights to their 
properties. 

Several laws of the same tenor were passed during the 
long period of political and economical reconstruction 
through which the Eepublic had to go. In all of them may 
be seen the struggle between two antagonistic principles; 
the first being distrust of the foreigner, and, unhappily, 
a distrust too well justified; the second, the liberal spirit 
of the aere, which at times was reflected with brilliant 
intensity from the high souls of the men of battle of those 
days. 

On the eve of the proclamation of the Ayutla plan, on 
the 16th of February, 1854, a law was passed in which 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



305 



lands and pecuniary help were offered to European immi- 
grants. 

During the administration of Mr. D. Sebastian Lerdo de 
Tejada a law was passed on the 31st of May, 1875, which 
authorized the Executive, during the time that a law was 
being brought in and passed for definitely determining and 
arranging all that related to colonization, to put into exe- 
cution by its own direct action the law already mentioned 
by means of contracts with particular companies and on 
certain general bases. 

LAWS IN FORCE GOVERNING IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION. 

II. A decree dated the 15th of December, 1883, com- 
pleted what was left undone by the previous law and finally 
opened the sluice-gate for the colonizing stream. 

By virtue of this decree the Executive was authorized to 
look after the measurement, boundaries, partitions and 
valuations of the untilled lands or national properties 
which existed in the Republic in order that the necessary 
steps might be taken to establish colonists. 

The divisions were in no case to exceed 6,012 acres, 
this amount of land being the largest extent which it was 
allowable to give to one individual who had arrived at 
man's estate and was capable of making a legal contract. 

The lands thus marked out, measured, divided and valued 
mi^ht be given to foreign immigrants and to natives of the 
country, who wished to settle on them as colonists, under 
the following conditions : 

I. That the lands be bought at a valuation fixed by engin- 
eers and approved of by the Colonization Secretaryship on 
a ten years' purchase, payment commencing from the 
second year of the colonist's establishment on the land. 

II. That the lands be bought for cash, or paying at 
shorter dates than those fixed by the previous condition. 

20 



306 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

III. That a free title be given to the colonist when he 
asked for it, but in such case the extent of the land must 
not be more than one hundred hectares or 250 acres, and 
no title to the ownership can be obtained except when it 
is justified by the man having held the land in his power 
and by his having cultivated the whole of it or at least not 
less than the tenth part of it during five consecutive years. 

In order to be regarded as a colonist and to have a right 
to the privileges granted to such by law, foreign immigrant 
must bring with him to the Republic, a certificate from the 
consul or immigration agent or from the company or house 
authorized by the Executive to bring colonists to the 
Republic. 

' Colonists who settle in the country enjoy the following 
privileges for ten years beginning from the date of their 
establishment : 

I. Freedom from military service. 

II. Exemption from all taxes except municipal ones. 

III. Exemption from importation or inland duties upon 
provisions where there are none to be had, upon agricul- 
tural implements, tools, machinery, chattels, building 
materials for houses, necessary furniture, breeding animals 
which are destined for the colonies. 

IV. Personal and intransmissible exemption from export 
duties upon the produce of the lands. 

V. Prizes for excellence of work, rewards and special 
protection for the introduction of new culture or industry. 

VI. Freedom from the duties upon the legalization of 
signatures and the issuing of passports which the consular 
agents grant to individuals who enter the Republic for- its 
colonization by virtue of contracts made by the govern- 
ment with a particular firm or firms. — Every foreign im- 
migrant who settles in a colony is bound before being 
established, to make known in presence of the Federal agent 
of colonization or before the respective notary or judge, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 307 

his nationality and whether he desires to retain such 
nationality or to obtain that of Mexico in accordance with 
the privilege which the Constitution of the Republic gives 
him in such a case. The colonists have all rights and duties 
which the Federal Constitution grants to and imposes upon 
Mexicans and foreigners as the case may be. They are, 
however, in all questions that may arise or to whatever 
class the persons may belong, subject to the tribunals of 
the Republic to the total exclusion of all foreign interference. 
Colonists who, without a justifying reason, abandon for 
more than a year the lands which have been granted.them 
for purchase, and without having paid for them in full, lose 
all right to the said lauds and also to that part of the 
purchase money which they may have paid. 

Mexicans who reside abroad and desire to settle on the 
vacant lauds of the frontiers of the Republic have a right to 
a free grant of land upon the same conditions as those given 
under number III, of article 3, which we have mentioned 
above. The extent of such a grant is 200 hectares, or 500 
acres with the enjoyment for fifteen years of the exemp- 
tions which this law grants. The law also empowers the 
Executive to assist colonists or immigrants in such cases as 
it deems convenient, having regard always to the amounts 
assigned them in the estimates, having regard also to the 
expenses of transporting their persons and luggage, both by 
sea and land, and taking into consideration the distance the 
railways carry them. Such colonists have too a free main- 
tenance for fifteen days at their places of settlement and 
are supplied with tools, seeds, building materials and 
animals for working and breeding purposes. For these last 
services the State is re-imbursed according to the value of 
the lands ceded. 

The Executive can authorize companies to lay out untilled 
lands, provided they measure, set up boundary limits, 
divide into lots, value and describe them for the transport 



308 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

of colonists thereto, and their settlement thereon. The 
lands marked out by such companies, with the exception of 
those granted to the said companies, for their expenses in 
laying out, are given to colonists or held in reserve by the 
government. 

Foreigners and Naturalization. 

Among the provisions of the law dated the 28th of 
May, 1886, and which relates to foreigners and their natural- 
ization, the following may be of interest for the immigrant 
inasmuch as they. inform him of the guarantees, rights 
and immunities which he can enjoy in the country. 

Expatriation. — The Republic of Mexico recognizes expat- 
riation or emigration as the natural and inherent right of 
every man and as necessary to the enjoyment of individual 
liberty. It therefore both permits its own inhabitants to 
exercise this right so that they may leave their country and 
settle down in a foreign land, and protects the right which 
foreigners of every nationality have to come and live under 
its jurisdiction. The Republic then receives subjects or 
citizens from other States and naturalizes them in con- 
formity with the said law of the 28th of May, 1886. 

Expatriation and naturalization in another country do 
not, however, exempt a criminal from extradition and the 
trial and punishment due to him in accordance with the 
treaties, international customs and the laws of the country. 

Citizens who have been naturalized and made such in 
Mexico, even if they be in foreign lands have a right to the 
same protection from the Government of the Republic as 
Mexicans who are so by birth, whether the matter be one 
of person or property. This does not hinder them, if they 
return to their original country, from being subject to the 
responsibilities which they may have incurred before their 
naturalization in Mexico and by the laws of their first 
country. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



309 



The Mexican Government protects its citizens abroad as 
far as international laws allow. The President, accord- 
ino- as he deems it convenient, makes use of the means 
placed at his disposal by international laws, always provided 
they do not constitute acts of hostility ; and even so, if 
diplomatic interference is not sufficient and if the means at 
his disposal are not enough for his purpose, or if the injuries 
to the Mexican nation are so grave as to demand severe 
measures, then the President gives immediate account of 
the matter to Congress and lays before it the documents 
relating thereto in order that effective constitutional steps 
may be taken. The naturalization of a foreigner loses its 
effect if he reside in his original country during two years, 
unless he does so in the discharge of an official commission 
from the Government or with the latter' s permission. 

Naturalization.— Every foreigner who fulfills the neces 
sary conditions laid down by the law can be naturalized in 
the Eepublic. At lest six months before petitioning for nat- 
uralization his request should be presented in writing before 
the municipality of his place of residence. In this request 
he should state his desire to become a Mexican citizen and 
to renounce his foreign nationality. The municipality will 
then give him a copy certificate of his statement and keeps 
the original in its records. 

When the six months have passed and after the foreigner 
has resided two full years in the Eepublic he can ask the 
Federal Government to grant him a certificate of natural- 
ization. In order to obtain it he must first present himself 
before the district judge under whose jurisdiction he may 

be and offer proof of the following : 

I. That according to the law of his country he is in the 
full enjoyment of his civil rights and is of age. 

II. That he has resided in the Republic for at least two 
years and that during that time he has observed good 
conduct. 



310 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

III. That he has means, a trade, profession or funds on 
which to live. 

To the petition which he presents to the district judge 
asking him to authorize this information, he must also add 
the certificated copy given him by the municipality and 
must send too an express renunciation of all submission, 
obedience and fidelity to any foreign government, and 
especially to the one of which he was previously a subject: 
he has also to renounce all foreign protection from the laws 
and authorities of Mexico, and all the rights which are 
conceded to foreigners by treaty or international law. 

The district judge before ratifying the petition directs that 
the testimony of the witnesses be received in presence of the 
State Prosecutor Promoter and he can also, if he deems it 
necessary, demand information regarding such witnesses 
from the municipality. 

The judge likewise admits whatever other proofs there 
may be of the points laid down in the petition and asks the 
opinion of the State Prosecutor Promoter thereon. 

He then, in case his judgment is favorable, remits 
the original document to the Foreign Secretaryship in 
order that if there be no legal impediment the certificate of 
naturalization may be issued. The petitioner then through 
the same judge draws up a petition for the said Secretary- 
ship asking for a certificate of naturalization, and again, 
declaring his renunciation of all foreign rights and statin^ 
his adhesion, obedience and submission to the laws and 
authorities of Mexico. 

Foreigners who serve in the national merchant navy can 
be naturalized after a service on board of one year only. 
The necessary formalities may be gone through before 
the district judge of any of the posts at which the vessel 
touches and in like manner any of the municipalities of the 
same is empowered to receive the petitioner's manifestation. 
Foreigners who by virtue of the law are already naturalized 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 311 

and those who have the right of choosing to become Mexi- 
can citizens or not, are not included in these provisions. 
Hence it is that the children of a Mexican man or woman 
who has lost his or her citizenship, the foreign woman who 
marries a Mexican, the children of a foreign father, or of 
a foreign mother, and of an unknown father if born in 
Mexico territory and the Mexican woman who is the widow 
of a foreigner, are all looked upon by the law as naturalized 
if they fulfill these conditions and for them there is no need 
of any formalities. 

Foreigners who acquire landed property in the Republic, 
who have had children born to them in Mexico and who 
serve the Government in an official capacity, can apply to 
the Foreign Secretaryship for their certificate of naturaliza- 
tion within the term of one year. To their petition there 
must be added a certificate of their having acquired landed 
property, had children born in Mexico, or accepted some 
public employment, according as their special case may be. 
They must also present the renunciation of rights and the 
protest of submission required for ordinary cases of 
naturalization. 

Absence in a foreign country with the leave of Govern- 
ment, provided such absence does not exceed two months 
during a period of two years, does not interrupt the neces- 
sary number of years' residence in the Republic. 

Certificates of naturalization are not granted to the subjects 
or citizens of a nation with which the Republic may be at 
war. Neither are they conceded to persons who are reputed 
and judicially declared in other countries to be pirates, 
slave dealers, incendiaries, coiners, bank forgers, or forgers 
of any papers which serve as money, nor are they given to 
murderers, highway robbers or thieves. 

Any naturalization fraudulently obtained by a foreigner 
in violation of the law is absolutely null and void. 



312 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Certificates of naturalization are issued entirely gratui- 
tously so that no payment can be demanded for them 
whether under the title of costs, registration fee, stamp or 
any other name. 

As the act of naturalization is in an especial way personal 
he who wishes to become naturalized can only be repre- 
sented by a person with special faculties for the act, and 
these faculties must include the power of making the 
renunciation of foreign rights and the protest of submission 
to Mexico. In no case, however, can the representative 
supply the defect of residence in the Eepublic for the 
proper period of time by the foreigner. A citizen and for- 
eigner cannot exchange their qualities as such nor transfer 
them to another person so that neither the citizen can 
enjoy the rights of the foreigner nor the latter the prerog- 
atives of the former. 

The change of nationality or naturalization produces no 
retroactive or backward effect. The acquisition and enjoy- 
ment of the rights of a Mexican citizen only take effect on 
the day after that on which all the conditions have been 
fulfilled and all the formalities gone through which the law 
lays down for the obtaining of naturalization. Colonists 
who come to the country in fulfillment of contracts made by 
the Government and whose traveling expenses and settle- 
ment are paid for by the same are regarded as Mexicans. In 
their enrollment contract they must state their determina- 
tion to renounce their former nationality and to adopt that 
of Mexico. And on being established in the colony they 
present themselves before a competent authority to make 
a further renunciation and protest which is sent to the 
minister of foreign affairs in order that the proper certifi- 
cate of naturalization may be issued. 

Colonists who come to the country on their own account 
or on behalf of companies or of private enterprises which 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 313 

do not receive any government subvention, in fact, immi- 
grants of every kind can become naturalized in accordance 
with some or other of the provisions of this law. Those 
colonists who have hitherto settled in the country are also 
bound by the same law in all that does not oppose the 
rights they have acquired by their contracts. 

The naturalized foreigner becomes a Mexican citizen as 
soon as he complies with all the regulations laid down in 
Art. 34 of the Constitution. He is then on an equality 
with Mexicans as far as regards his rights and duties, but 
he is of course incapacitated from holding such positions or 
employments as according to law must be filled by natives 
by birth. There is an exception, however, even to this, 
viz.: when a person has been born within the national 
territory but has been naturalized in accordance with num- 
ber II of Art. the 2d of the law dated the 28th of May, 
1886, and which refers to foreigners. 



The Rights and Duties of Foreigners. 

Foreigners in the Eepublic enjoy the civil rights which 
are the due of Mexicans as well as the privileges granted 
under Section I, Title I, of the Constitution, the only 
exception to these rights and privileges being that the 
Government has the power to expel a foreigner who is 
pernicious. 

In order to become possessors of untilled national lands, 
landed property and ships foreigners are not bound to 
reside in the Republic, but they remain subject to the 
restrictions which the reigning laws impose. This rule 
holds good in all cases where the ownership means the hiring 
of immoveables or fixtures by a foreigner when the term of 
his contract exceeds ten years. 



314 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The Federal law alone can modify and restrict the civil 
rights enjoyed by foreigners. But owing to the principle 
of international reciprocity foreigners are subject to the 
same disabilities in the Republic as the laws of their coun- 
tries impose upon Mexicans who reside abroad in theirs. 
Hence it is that the provisions of the civil codes and the 
regulations of the district regarding this matter have the 
same force as Federal laws and are obligatory throughout 
the whole of Mexico. 

Foreigners can without losing their original nationality 
occupy houses with all due legal effect. The ownership, 
change or loss of house property are regulated by the laws 
of Mexico. 

When the suspension of personal guarantees has been 
declared in the terms laid down in Art. 29 of the Constitu- 
tion, foreigners equally with Mexicans are subject to the 
provisions of the law which decrees the suspension unless 
they are especially excepted by treaty. 

Foreigners are bound to contribute to the public expenses 
in the manner which the laws direct, and to obey and respect 
the institutions, laws and authorities of the country and to 
submit themselves to the judgments and sentences of the 
courts without the power to have recourse to means 
other than those which the laws grant to Mexicans. They 
are allowed to make an appeal to diplomatic means, only 
when justice has been denied to them, or wilfully retarded 
in its administration, and after they have uselessly exhausted 
all the ordinary means appointed by law, and then they 
must appeal in the manner laid down by international 

law. 

Foreigners do not enjoy the political rights which belong 
only to Mexican citizens. Therefore they cannot vote nor 
be voted for in any popular election for any position 
whether it be a political one, or in the Army, Navy or 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 315 

National Guard. Neither can they form associations to 
treat about the political affairs of the country nor exercise 
the right of petition in such matters. These regulations, 
however, do not interfere with what is laid down in Arts. 
1st, number XII. and 19th of the above-mentioned law of 
1886. 

Foreigners are exempt from military service. Those 
who own houses, however, are obliged to undertake the 
duty of police, when it is a question of the security of prop- 
erty and of the preservation of order in the place in which 
their houses are. Foreigners who later took part in the 
civil dissensions of the country may be expelled from its 
territory as pernicious foreigners who have subjected them- 
selves to the laws of the country by the crimes they have 
been guilty of. Their rights and duties are regulated 
during the time the war lasts in accordance with the law of 
nations and with a due regard to treaties. 

As the laws regarding the enrollment of foreigners have 
been repealed the minister of Foreign affairs is the only one 
who can issue certificates of any particular nationality to 
foreigners citizenship in his supposed country but they do 
not exclude proof to the contrary. The final and definite 
proof of a particular nationality is given before competent 
tribunals and in the manner which the laws and treaties 
determine. 

The law already cited of May, 1886, does not grant to 
foreigners the rights denied to them by the law of nations 
or by the treaties and legislation in force in Mexico. 



Immigratory Movement. 

III. The foreign immigration to the Republic has been 
until now of small consideration, notwithstanding it has 



316 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



been increasing continuously, as will be seen by the fol- 
lowing table: 



MOVEMENT OF PASSENGERS AT THE DIFFERENT PORTS. 



YEARS. 


PORTS. 


ARRIVALS. 


DEPARTURES. 


IN FAVOR OP 
IMMIGRATION. 


1884. 


Gulf Ports 


11.365 
4.463 


9.083 
3.892 












Total 






15.828 


12.975 


2.853 



1885 


Gulf Ports 


1C162 


8.122 








4.651 


3.911 






Total 






14.813 


12.033 


2.780 










1886 


Gulf Ports 


9.882 
5.933 


7.705 
5.680 


















15.815 


is.afis 


2.430 








1887 


Gulf Ports 


10.736 
13.400 


8.305 
10.431 


















24.136 


18.736 


5.400 


] 888. 


Gulf Ports 


13.648 
13.033 


10.651 
11.961 












26.681 


22.612 


4.069 






1889. 


Gulf Ports 


17.974 
12.918 


12.628 
12.920 
















30-892 


25.548 


5.344 













FOR SIX YEARS. 



Gulf Ports... 
Pacific Ports. 



Grand Total. 



73.767 
54.308 



128.165 



56.494 

48.795 



105.289 



22.876 



General movement. 
Annual average. . . . 



.233.454 
. 38.909 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



317 



The under mentioned countries have contributed to the 
immigratory movement as follows: 



YEAKS 


NATIONS 


ARRIVALS 


DEPARTURES 


DIFFERENCE 

In favor Against 


1884 


Spain 
<« 
u 
tt 
<< 
n 


3,026 
2,005 
1,847 
2,270 
2,654 
3,909 


1,719 
1,479 
1,424 

1,403 
1,764 
2,548 


1,307 
526 
423 
867 
890 

1,361 




1885 




1886 




1887 




1888 




1889 








Total 


15,711 


10,337 


5,374 








1884 


United States 
u 
<< 
<( 
n 


1,304 
1,297 
1,179 
5,805 
4,291 
3,987 


1,373 
967 
1,300 
4,152 
4,067 
4,133 


330 

1,653 
224 


69 


1885 


1886 


121 


1887 


1889 


146 





Total 



17,863 



15,992 



2,207 



336 



1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
18S7. 



1889. 



England 



234 

238 
229 
386 
569 
726 



188 


46 




175 


63 





171 


58 





119 


267 




264 


305 ....••• • 


415 


311 






Total 



2,382 



1,332 



1,050 



1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 



France 



619 
362 
509 
761 
783 
758 



547 
362 
476 
460 
671 
671 



72 

33 
301 
112 

87 



Total 



3,792 



3,187 



605 



318 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



884. 
885. 
886. 
887. 



Germany 



352 

307 
280 
453 
477 
682 



DEPARTURES 



Total 



2,551 



378 
262 
285 
296 
300 
531 



DIFFERENCE 

In favor Against 



2,052 



45 



157 
177 
151 



530 



26 



31 



1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889' 



Italy 



392 
216 
283 
216 
469 
386 



Total 



1,962 



620 
237 
311 
223 
357 
294 



2,042 



112 
92 



204 



228 

21 

28 

7 



284 



1884. 
1885. 
1886. 

1887 



1889. 



Various 

Nations 



230 
269 
216 
386 
702 
1,496 



168 
191 
181 
401 
410 



292 
596 



15 



Total 


3,299 


2,251 


1,063 


15 






Grand Total 


47,560 


37,193 


11,033 


666 







General movement 84,753 

In favor of the immigration • • •• .10,367 

Annual average • ■• • • 1,727 



From a comparison of the two totals corresponding to 
the general movement, may bo deduced the number of 
Mexicans arriving and leaving the Kepublic, which, in 
six years, amounted to 148,701. 

In the preceding table we have only considered the 
movement of travelers entering through the ports of the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 319 

Pacific and the Gulf for the reason that we have not suffi- 
cient data with which to estimate the immigration which 
enters through the frontiers of the United States and which, 
we are satisfied, would exceed greatly that of any other 
country. 

After having perused the foregoing regarding foreign 
immigration, its insufficiency, apparently inexplicable, will 
at once be noted, considering the elements of wealth which 
Mexico possesses, — sufficient to form a prosperous nation 
of 60,000,000 inhabitants. 

From within a few years subsequent to the declaration 
of Independence, as has been seen, our statesmen, pre- 
occupied with that idea, have endeavored by every possible 
means to attract to our shores a large foreign immigration, 
as if to accomplish this object, good will and laws more or 
less liberal would only be necessary. This has been a 
lamentable error, which has cost Mexico a large amount of 
money, and which has only served to lessen us in the 
esteem of foreign nations. Every colonist who has re- 
turned to his native land a victim of our deception, has, 
naturally, become a defamer of the Republic, and, de- 
ceived, the greater portion of the colonists attracted to 
Mexico by means of deceptions practiced, or by a 
stipend wasted, in the majority of cases, by avaricious 
contractors, or by both causes, have been compelled to 
return; during the first period, because the picture pre- 
sented by the nation, turbulent and ravaged by the politi- 
casters, was not the most inviting for working people; 
and, recently, because notwithstanding the peace and 
morality attending the administration which we have en- 
joyed during the past seventeen years, rarely, indeed, has 
artificial colonization given good results. The colonist, 
circumscribed and compromised, to work his determined 
length of time under fixed conditions, has never been satis- 
tied; he ends by comparing his condition with that of a 



320 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

slave or prisoner, at least. This is what experience teaches 
us. 

Now, then, we have no right, as yet, to expect a spon- 
taneous and numerous colonization of laboring classes 
while we are unable to offer good wages and profitable 
lands. The inequality which exists between the wages paid 
on our northern frontier and those of the Southern Ameri- 
can States, causes a large number of persons to emigrate to 
that country, to the great injury of our " hacendados." 
But the evil is not a permanent one. In brief, with our 
systems of cultivation and irrigation modernized, our Mex- 
ican . farmers and mining companies would be enabled to 
pay high wages, and the immigration from Europe, which 
is at present unfavorable to us, would find its way to our 
country, more particularly by reason of the active hosti- 
lity which the United States of America, whose population 
is already sufficiently dense, has shown towards European 
immigration, after having closed its doors to the Chinese. 

As a matter of fact, and responsive to an increase in 
wages, the voluntary immigration from the Antilles has 
begun to make itself felt in the Peninsula of Yucatan. 

The State of Chiapas, which is making prodigious strides 
forward, will soon make urgent demand for a large num- 
ber of hands, will increase its wages, and the laboring 
classes will hasten en masse to that privileged territory ; 
and as many more will come from the frontiers and coasts, 
to the central tablelands throughout the whole extension 
of the Kepublic. 

It is only necessary that the proper period of time shall 
elapse, in order that this evolution may be accomplished. 
There is much to be hoped for from spontaneous immi- 
gration ; but very little, or nothing, from the systems of 
artificial colonization which have been employed up to the 
present, with great waste of the nation's money. 

Apropos of the colonization and utilization of indigenous 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 321 

labor, the eminent statesman, Mr. Matias Komero, makes 
the following statement : 

" We have an indigenous population of pure race, which 
probably exceeds the half of the inhabitants of the Kepub- 
lic, or, say more than six millions. As a general rule, the 
Indians have preserved, with very slight modifications, 
the customs which they had when, some four hundred 
years since, America was discovered by Columbus, and 
remain in a state of almost complete isolation, relying upon 
themselves, as far as possible, to meet their petty require- 
ments ; so that they consume what they themselves produce 
and produce but little for exportation, therefore that from 
this point of view, the Indians represent no factor in our 
public wealth. 

The duty of the Government is to civilize those of our 
fellow-citizens whom they find in this condition ; place 
them in contact with the rest of the country and with the 
civilized world ; make them producers and consumers of 
national and foreign merchandise ; educate them, teach them 
at least the Spanish language, to read and write ; and when 
this has been accomplished, and when the Indians, until now 
disinherited, are made participants in the advantages and 
comforts of civilization, we shall have effected, if I may so 
state, the transportation to our country of millions of 
colonists, without the cost and inconvenience of bringing 
here a foreign population, and being compelled to assimilate 
it with our own." 

COLONIES. 

IV. The political revolutions which were rife for so many 
years in Mexico rendered completely unsuccessful the first 
efforts which were made at foreign colonization. A like 
fate befall all the endeavors made previous to the Rev-, 
olution of Tuxtepec, which was the turning point of the 

21 



322 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

course of political upheavals and which inaugurated an era 
of peace, industry and material prosperity. 

The triumph of the Revolution and the coming to the 
front of practical men made a complete change in the 
political and economical aspect of the Republic. The 
people were now tired of revolutions, their own chosen men 
were guiding their destinies and these men pointed out to 
them new paths along which they might not hesitate to 
advance with steady pace. The thoughts and judgments 
of the greater part of the Mexicans had to undergo a radical 
change and was necessary to make them understand that 
the high road of labor was the way to reach wealth and 
material prosperity. • 

The work has been slow, perhaps, but nevertheless steady 
and progressive. 

Peace being once firmly established it was necessary to 
reorganize the Public Exchequer, and this task was no less 
important than the previous one. So difficult indeed was 
it that it required great efforts and it was found necessary 
to intrust it to an exceptionally clever financier who should 
possess a vast knowledge of the science of finance and at 
the same time an exquisite tact so as to bring into harmony 
complicated combinations and to undertake with any chance 
of success the reorganization of the Mexican Finances which 
in 1885 had arrived at the last stage of confusion, as had 
been seen elsewhere.* 

Scarcely had the peace of the country been secured when 
it became one of the first cares of the Rulers of the new 
era to promote European immigration. With this object 
eighteen contracts were entered into, their dates extending 
from the 12th of January, 1878, when a contract was made by 
the Colonization Secretaryship with C. Guillermo Andrade, 
who represented the Mexican, Agricultural, Industrial and 



* " Treasury Dept." 1 IV. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 323 

Colonizing Company of the lands of Colorado till the 7th 
of June, 1882. Of these contracts six had at the latter day 
fallen into desuetude and nine were still pending execution ; 
the only ones that were carried out were those of Messieurs 
Rovatti and Francisco Rizzo. In order to attend to the 
thorough establishment of the colonists who according to 
agreement were to arrive in the Republic, the Colonization 
Secretaryship dictated the necessary arrangements for ac- 
quiring lands suitable for colonization, and with this view the 
sum of $169,988 was laid out in buying the farms of Mazate- 
pec, Chipiloe, Tenamaxtla and the lands of Settles, in Pu- 
ebla, those of Ojo de Leon in San Luis Potosi ; and those of 
Aldama and Nativitas which are close to those of the Ajrricul- 
tural School of the Capital. All these lands together cover 
an extent of 2,245,802 acres. 

In addition to these tracts and by virtue of permission 
granted by law on the 31st of May, 1857, the Colonization 
Secretaryship acquired others whose extent is 163,642,400 
acres situated in the fertile region of theTehuantepec Isthmus 
and in the island of Tiburon under the jurisdiction of the 
States of Morelos and Guerrero. 

The surveying and boundary operations undertaken on 
behalf of the Colonization Secretaryship in the Table of Met- 
laltoyuca and the operations to be undertaken in virtue of the 
contracts in the States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila and Chi- 
huahua, in the islands of St. Stephen and Ciari in the lands 
of Champoton in Campeche, considerably increased the 
amount of lands available for colonizing purposes. The 
results were not so good as were expected owing to the 
contractors breaking off their engagements, but notwith- 
standing this the efforts of the Government were not entirely 
fruitless. 

The first colony was established in the healthy and fruit- 
ful lands of Huatusco. The colonists arrived at Veracruz 
on the 19th of October, 1881, on board the steamer 



324 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

" Atlantico " having been sent out by the firm of Rovatti 
& Co. of Leghorn virtue of their first contract. They 
were received at the port and on the following day were 
taken on the Mexican railway to Orizaba and from thence 
they proceeded to the Colony, where they arrived on the 3rd 
of November of the same year. At Orizaba they were re- 
ceived by a deputy from the Colonization Secretaryship and 
comfortably lodged in an extensive building. The Coloniza- 
tion Secretary deeming his presence in the colony necessary 
went thither along with the principal of that section of 
affairs at the end of October and at once set about arrang- 
ing the means for surveying and measuring out the lands 
and for immediately installing the colonists, and establish- 
ing the administrative order which had to be observed in 
the future by them. The 1st colonists who arrived at 
Huatusco under the conduct of Mr. Juan B. Ochoa, En- 
gineer, were 423 in number, a few families having stayed at 
Orizaba. Thus was founded and established the first 
colony, namely, " Manuel Gonzalez," as it was immediately 
styled. 

On the 27th of January, 1882, there came to Veracruz 
in the steamship "Casus" 193 Italians, made up of 53 
families. These, together with 85 Mexicans, were on 
their road to the farms of Barreto & Temilpan, where 
they formed the colony which took the name «« Porfirio 
Diaz." 

On lands belonging to the farm of Temilpa there were 
established with Mexican families and on the same basis as 
the colony " Porfirio Diaz" the following towns: "San 
Vicente Juarez," "San Eafael Zaragoza " and "San 
Pablo Hidalgo." 

The third colony, which was established on the estate of 
Mazatepec, in the State of Puebla, was called " Carlos 
Pacheco." It was formed of a hundred Italian families 
who were sent. out as colonists in the Steamer "Mexico " 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 325 

on the 25th of February, 1882, by Messrs. Rovatti & Pizzo. 
The colony was made up of 428 persons of whom 384 
were Milanese and 44 natives of Mexico. 

Near this colony and adjoining the townlands of Tetela 
the Colonization Secretaryship acquired other lands of a 
cool and healthy temperature, of great productiveness and 
having an abundant supply of water. Here the colonists of 
Mazatepec settled because they wished to change their 
climate and devote themselves to the cultivation of the 
ordinary vine and the rancio, which is there produced in 
great abundance. 

The families that remained in Orizaba with the intention 
of going to the State of San Luis Potosi numbered 410 
persons. They were taken to the fertile lands on the 
estate " Ojo de Leon " where they were started in the best 
possible way, being at once given lots and supplied with 
tools and agricultural instruments for clearing the land, 
building houses, etc. This colony was named " Diez 
Gutierrez." On the 25th of September the last band of 
Italian colonists sent in accordance with the Rizzo contract 
arrived at Veracruz. They numbered in all 656 persons, 
consisting of 58 families, which were distributed as follows: 
38, with a total of 424 persons, were sent to the estates of 
Chipiloc and Tenamaxtla; 19, with 219 individuals, went to 
Huatusco whilst one of 13 persons was dispatched to the 
lands of the Agricultural School. 

On the 30th of September there came to the estate of 
Chipiloc 38 families, which along with 28 persons of both 
sexes from the colony of " Porfirio Diaz " and a Mexican 
family composed of 4 persons made up the colony called 
"Fernandez Leal." At that time it consisted of 510 
persons. 

Quite close to the capital, as has been already said, the 
lands of Nativitas and Aldama were bought and annexed to 
the agricultural school with the view of forming a small 



326 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



model colony out of selected persons and especially of 
persons chosen from the first band of Italians. 

Twenty-six families, numbering in all 124 persons, were 
selected to form this colony. 

In later years, others were established, the most notable 
and at the same time the ones that have made greater 
progress, being the socialist colony of Topolobampo, which 
was organized in conformity with a contract signed with an 
American subject, Mr. Albert Owen, and the mormon settle- 
ments established in the State of Chihuahua. The follow- 
ing is a table of the colonies established inthe Republic, the 
number of colonists, in 1892, their sex and nationality: — 




NATIVES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO. 
Hex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



327 



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328 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

From 1878 to 1891, thirty-three concessions of land 
for colonization purposes have been granted. Of these 
nine fell into desuetude, two were withdrawn and the follow- 
ing are still in force. 



t>ate of Contract or 
Authorization. Concessionary. States. 

January 7, 1882 Mexican Meridional Eailroad 

Company P u e b 1 a Veracruz 

Oaxaca and 

Chiapas. 
June 6, 1882 Eaf ael Portas Martinez Yucatan and Cam- 

peche. 
July 10, 1883 Manuel Campos & Co Yucatan and Cam- 

peche. 

November 9, 1883 Ygnacio Gomez del Campo 

i & Co ■ Chihuahua. 

December 27, 1883. . .Daniel Levy 

September 29, 1884. . . Ybarra & Co . of Menda 

July 17, 1884 Daniel Levy 

July 21, 1884 Luis Huller & Co.. . Lower Calif ornia and 

Isla de Cedros. 

November 3/1884 Efren Vaca. Chihuahua. 

October 8, 1886 W. Brodsick and Roberto 

Simon Coahuila. 

June 4, 1887 Louis Huller 

March 3, 1887 Louis Arantave & Co Chihuahua. 

August 19, 1887 Ponciano Palomir Chihuahua. 

August 19, 1887 Maclovio Gamboa Chihuahua. 

December 22, 1887 . . . Lascurain & Co Veracruz. 

June 2, 1888 Agriculture Co. of Tlahualilo.Durango. 

June 20, 1888 M. Ramirez Varela and Jose" 

Mora Oaxaca, Veracruz. 

Tabasco and Chiapas. 

June 4, 1888 Louis Huller Chihuahua. 

June 10, 1888 Octavio Conde Tamaulipas. 

August 24, 1889 Jesus Almada Sinaloa. 

July 11, 1891 Louis R. Brewer Chiapas. 

November 19, 1891... Carlos Wehner Chiapas. 




IGNACIO MARISCAL. 
Secretary of Foreiga Affairs. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. • 329 



BOUNDARY AND COLONIZATION CONTRACTS MADE BY THE COL- 
ONIZATION SECRETARYSHIP FROM THE YEAR 1881 TO 1891. 

Date of Contract or 
Authorization. Concessionary. States. 

August 31, 1881 Eduardo Clay Wise & Co Chiapas. 

May 21, 1881 Plutarco Ornelas Tamaulipas Coahuila 

aud Chihuahua. 

May 20, 1882 Guillermo Andrade Gulf of Cortes. 

March 31, 1883 C. Flores and S. C. Hale, & Co. Lower California. 

September 27, 1883 . .Federico Mendez Rivas Tabasco and Chiapas. 

March 1, 1884 IreneoPaz & Co Lower California. 

June 23, 18S4 Adolf o Bulle Sonora and Lower 

California. 

July 11, 1884 Antonio Azisnzulo & Co...... Chihuahua and Du- 

rango. 

August 9, 1884 Justo Sierra and Fernando 

Zetina 

September 17, 1884... Manuel Orellana Nogueras 

& Co Guanajuato. 

May 28, 1S85 Alberto Sanchez & Co Isla de Guadalupe. 

June 20, 1885 Luis Huller Isla del Socorro. 

August 10, 1885 Comp. Mex. Colonizadora Islas "Angel de la 

Guarda " Tiburon 
and San Esteban. 

January 21, 1886 Manuel Vallejo Michoacan. 

April 28, 1886 Carlos Quaglia & Co Queretaro. 

July 21, 1886 Ramon G. Pena & Co Jalisco. 

July 26, 1886 Manuel S.Vila Jalisco. 

October 6, 1886 Jose M. Herrera Queretaro. 

July 22, 1886 Comp. del Ferrocarril de Texas. Sinaloa, Sonora, 

Chihuahua and 
Coahuila. 

March 5, 1888 Jose* M. Herrera Queretaro. 

March 17, 1888 Comp. Mex. Agricola, Indus- 
trial y Colonizadora Terrenos de Rio 

Colorado. 

September 27, 1889. . . Mariano Garcia Durango. 

October 28 1889 Faustino Mnez & Co Yucatan. 

February 28, 1890. . . . Alberto K. Owen Sinaloa, Sonora Chi- 
huahua and Coa- 
huila. 

April 24,1891 Pedro Hinojosa Nuevo Leon. 

April 30, 1 891 J. Gonzalez Trevifio Coahuila. 



330 THE EICHES OF MEXIC® 



PURCHASE AND SALE CONTRACTS OF UNCULTIVATED LANDS 
AND CONTRACTS OF COLONIZATION OF SAME MADE BY THE 
FOMENTATION SECRETARYSHIP FROM 1885 TO 1891. 

Date of Contract or 
Authorization. Concessionaries. btates. 

August 28, 1885 Louis Garcia Teruel Chihuahua. 

August 28, 1885 Mariano Garcia Chihuahua. 

May 22, 1886 E. Schnetz & Co '. Chihuahua. 

July 10,1886 Simon Sarlat Tabasco. 

October 29, 1887 E. Schnetz & Co 

March 8, 1888 Guillermio Andrade Lower California. 

August 17, 1888 Jose" M Garcia Chihuahua. 

September 14, 1888. . • " La Mexicana ' Comp ' de mi 
nas y terrenos en Mexico. 

August 17,1888 Jose" M Garcia Chihuahua. 

February 4, 1889 Eulalio Vela Veracruz. 

July 25, 1889 Andres Horcasitas Durango. 

June 13, 1890 Emilio Velasco Guerrero. 

July 30, 1890 L. Garcia Teruel Tabasco. 

August 22, 1890 Carlos Carrant Sonora and Sinaloa. 

September 12, 1890... Joaquin Casasus Federal District and 

several States. 

January 7, 1891 Louis Robles Campeche. 

January 7, 1891 Louis Gayon. Tepic Territory. 

July 24, 1891 Lorenzo Torrez Sonora. 

July 28, 1891 Jose" Valenzuela Jalisco and Zacate- 

cas. 
November 14, 1891...Arturo Eeeves Puebla. 



UNOCCUPIED GOVERNMENT LANDS. 

V. We find in the last report of the President of the 
Republic, the following data regarding unoccupied lands: 

" At the close of 1885, there were some 20,000,000 
acres suitable for colonization, and this amount was in- 
creased in 1886 by 7,000,000 hectares in the State of Chihua- 
hua and Lower California. 

In 1888 the surveyed lands reached the sum of 33,811,- 
524 hectares of which amount 11,036,407 belonged to the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



331 



colonization companies ; the superficies disposed of amounted 
to 12,642,446, leaving some 10,132,671 to be distributed 
by the Government. To this must be added 3,635,388 
hectares covered by 1,504 titles adjudicated to private indi- 
viduals. 

In 1892 there had been surveyed 16,820,141 hectares; 
of the 11,213,427 which belonged to the nation, there were 
adjudicated to private parties and colonization companies 
1,607,439 hectares, the sum realized from the sale of 
which amounted to $493,882.49, payable in bonds of the 
Public Debt. There still pertained to the Government 
15,513,865 free hectares. The settlements effected with 
the proprietors of lands, thetitle to which had been usurped, 
produced some $1,280,328.44 invested in titles, and this 
superfice increased to the sum of 4,222,901 hectares. In 
many States there were granted to the Indians 4,560 pro- 
prietory titles of lands, measuring 180,109 hectares. 
There have also been distributed among the Yaquis and 
Mayos many lots for cultivation and habitations." 




RAFT ON USUMACINTA RIVER. 

Mex. A. T. D. Los Siprlos. 



BOOK III. 



SOCIAL ELEMENTS. 

(333) 



CHAPTER I. 



RELIGION. 



I. The moral, intellectual, spiritual and material develop- 
ment of a nation as well as an individual depends largely 
upon religious or philosophical teaching, according as that 
teaching is best calculated to develop the individual powers 
of mind. All religious beliefs have been formulated by 
some of the most active minds of the race in the past, and 
are, perhaps, as good as the race were for the time able to 
comprehend. Without criticising the religious teachings of 
the day, we will simply present them as history furnishes 
the details. 



CATHOLIC RELIGION. 

II. The clergy in Mexico have attained an immense power 
through their public influence and riches. To the end of 
the VIII century it had reached the highest point of opul- 
ence and influence, and enjoyed very great incomes. The 
following are the emoluments of the principal ecclesiastical 
Dignitaries in New Spain. 

The Archbishop of Mexico received per year $130,000 ; 
the Bishop of Puebla, $110,000; of Valladolid, $100,000; 
of Guadalajara, $90,000; of Durango, $35,000; of Mon- 
terrey, $30,000 ; of Yucatan, $20,000 ; of Oaxaca, $18,000. 

(335) 



336 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 

The one of Sonora received in lieu of a stated salary, 
rentals from real estate to the amount of $6,000 per 
year, all of which makes a sum total of $539,000 per 
annum. 

The property of the Mexican clergy, calculated by the 
prices that prevailed when the landed property was in 
its rustic and urban state, and without including the 
secular revenues of the Jesuits, has been computed at 
$3,000,000, and the income which they derived from 
chaplaincy taxes or rents, stocks, endowments, amounted 
to $44,000,000, making with the previously mentioned 
revenues from various sources, a grand total of $47,- 
539,000. 

The number of parishes were 1,073, and the ecclesiastics 
occupied in them 2,300. The convents numbered 264; the 
missions 157, and the Mexican clergy, including not only 
professed, but lay-brothers and lay-friars, amounted in the 
year 1803 to 8,000 individuals. 

The first Mexican Constitution of 1824, established 
officially the Apostolic Roman Catholic religion, excluding 
all others, and this right was confirmed by the majority of 
the constitutions which followed. The first severe blow 
which the clergy of Mexico received was occasioned by the 
decree of May 31, 1856, which introduced a legal suspen- 
sion of the ecclesiastical properties in Puebla, and was 
based on public opinion, which accused the clergy of having 
instigated the civil war, employing for that purpose their 
enormous wealth. The economical political question was 
raised in this manner: the clergy were a powerful enemy 
which was necessary to suppress at any cost, being regarded 
as an element of perpetual discord ; it was indispensable to 
protect private property against the enormous taxes which 
were imposed upon it by the church. The following is a 
statistical table of the rustic and urban landed properties 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



337 



belonging to the ecclesiastical corporations in the Federal 
District in the year 1856: 

MEXICO. 

Houses. Value. 

Convents , 1,268 $11,439,739 00 

Congregations 62 458,326 00 

Cathedral, Sagrario and Archbishopric 55 574,307 00 

Parishes 24 49,828 00 

Nuestra Sefiora de los Angeles 1 170 00 

Sacristy of la Merced . . . 2 

Recorder of San Diego 1 5,000 00 

The holy places of Jerusalem 9 33,693 50 

Brotherhoods 39 263,430 00 

Archconfraternities , 51 469,348 23 

Pious works 46 337,570 00 

Chaplaincy Tribunal - 15 41,774 00 

1,573 $13,678,209 73 

Religious Colleges . 158 1,187,253 35 

Religious Schools 4 7,224 00 

162 $1,194,477.35 

TLALPAN. 

Convents 3 4,147 00 

Chaplaincy Tribunal 1 7,669 00 

4 $11,816.00 

TACUBAYA. 

The Parish 2 2,500 00 

Pious Works 2 8,300 00 

Brotherhood of San Joaquin 1 4,000 00 

Collegiata of Guadalupe .. 13 54,090 00 

18 $68,890.00 

RUSTIC PROPERTY IN TLALPAN. 

Convents 6 76,881 00 

Brotherhoods 4 11,833 00 

Total. 1,767 $15,042,107 08 



There were also several establishments for instruction 
and charities, which belonged equally to the Civil and 

29. 



338 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

Ecclesiastical Corporations, and which numbered 155 
houses, representing a value of $1,584,479. In like manner 
the capitals of both corporations, consisting of 74 rustic 
and urban houses, represented a sum total of $104,912.06. 

RESUMED. 

Ecclesiastical corporations and educational estab- 
lishments .1,767 $15,042,107 08 

Beneficiaries of both corporations 155 1,584,479 00 

Capitals of both corporations 74 104,912 06 

Total.... 1,996 $16,731,498 14 

After that followed the law of " Desamortization," 
referring to the recovery of properties from the church, 
and which was promulgated on June 25, 1856. The fol- 
lowing was the general object of the Government in pass- 
ing the law, viz. : In order to fully appreciate this law it 
must oe considered under two aspects : 1st. As a resolution 
to suppress and nullify the effects of one of the econom- 
ical errors which had contributed to maintain values of 
property in Mexico in a stationary condition and prevented 
the development of arts and industries; 2d. As an indis- 
pensable means of removing the principal obstacle which 
existed to the establishment of a uniform system of taxa- 
tion based on scientific principles; mobilizing landed prop- 
erty which is the natural basis of all good systems of 
taxation. 

Under the first aspect it will only be necessary to fix the 
attention upon the benefits which this measure would 
immediately confirm upon the tenants or lessees of prop- 
erties which formerly belonged to civil and ecclesiastical 
corporations, as also the great good which would result* to 
society in general, by placing in circulation the enormous 
amount of landed estates which were in a stagnated condi- 
tion, and finally by the impulse which would be given to the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. . 339 

arts and industries through the continued improvements 
which would be made in all the properties newly transferred 
from the moment in which they became private properties, 
already the object of sale and general exchange. From 
the second point of view aside from the revenues 
which the National Exchequer would at once derive, due 
to the impulse which would be given to transfers of 
ownership, which by virtue of this law, would have to be 
legally verified, it proposed the formation of a safe basis 
for the establishment of a system of taxes, the products 
of which, without overloading the various sources of 
public wealth, would be sufficient to meet the necessities 
of the Government, and permit it to abolish at once and 
forever all those forms of taxation which, like a dismal 
inheritance of the colonial period, were preserved to the 
present day, paralyzing commerce, and doing great injury 
to agriculture, the arts, industries and to the entire nation. 
(Decree which accompanied the law.) 

The law of nationalization of July 12th, 1859, which 
perfected in all its details the former one, states, among 
other things, in its explanatory portion, as follows: 

" That the principal motive of the present war, promoted 
and sustained by the clergy, is to withdraw itself from 
dependence to civil authority. * * * 

" That the money given by Catholics to the church with 
a pious object was utilized for this purpose, sustaining and 
augmenting each day the fratricidal strife which was carried 
on under the disguise of legitimate authority and denying the 
right of the Republic to construct itself otherwise than as 
suited their convenience and pleasure. 

" That the various efforts which had been made up to the 
present moment to terminate a war which was ruinous to 
the Republic, having been utterly ineffectual, to allow its 
sworn enemies to longer retain the resources or means 
which they so seriously misused, would be to become their 



340 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

accomplice, and that it is an imperative duty to put into 
execution every means which might be employed to save 
the Republic from destruction." 

By the provisions of this law, all properties of every 
description, which were held by the clergy, both sec- 
ular and regular, under various titles, reverted to 
the Government, without distinction, as to class of title, 
rio-ht or shares which it consisted of, nor of the name and 
application which it might have. In order to protect the 
new proprietors of nationalized properties, it became nec- 
essary to make certain provisions which would guarantee 
them the quiet and peaceful possession of their holdings, 
without being subject to revision, except, of course, in case 
of fraudulent sale. 

The economical results of the former laws were: 1st, the 
subdivision of the property; 2d, the increase of the public 
wealth in circulation. 

In order to form an idea of the sales which were made, 
it will suffice to state that by December 10th, 1861, the 
transactions in nationalized property had reached the enor- 
mous sum of $16,553,147. 



LEGAL IMPOSITIONS CONCERNING- RELIGIONS. 

III. By virtue of the law of July 12th, 1859, which was 
elevated to a constitutional rank by that of the December 
14th, 1874, religious toleration was allowed and, as a natural 
consequence, the church was separated from the State. 
This law guarantees the exercise of all forms of religious 
worship, and punishes only those forms and ceremonies 
which may be considered as offensive or contrary to the 
intent and meaning of the penal laws. 

The ministers of any religion do not, by reason of their 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 341 

character or profession, enjoy any privilege which would 
distinguish them from other citizens; nor are they sub- 
jected to greater prohibitions than those designed in the 
Law and the Constitution. 

Keligious instruction and the practice of any religion is 
prohibited in the National Establishments of the Repub- 
lic; they teach morality without alluding to any special 
religion. 

Notwithstanding this, persons residing in the public 
establishments are entitled to practice the religion they 
profess, and are even allowed to receive in the establish- 
ments in question, in urgent cases, the spiritual comforts 
of their religion. 

No religious ceremony is permitted to be performed in 
public but only in the interior of the churches. The meet- 
ings of the churches must be public and will therefore be 
under vigilance of the police, while the authorities may, 
when the exigences of the case require it, exercise their 
functions in such temples. 

Members of any religious denomination are prohibited 
from wearing any special dress to distinguish them from 
other citizens. 

Eeligious institutions may be organized as their members 
may elect, but such organization shall have no legal recog- 
nition from the State than that of giving personality to the 
superiors of same in each locality in order to defend their 
rights. No minister of any religion can, however, by 
virtue of his character and title, appear officially to the 
authorities. 

The Government does not recognize any monastic orders, 
and will not allow their establishment whatever mav be 
their purpose. The secret orders of this kind will be con- 
sidered as illicit bodies, and the authorities may disperse 
them when necessary; while the superiors of same will be 



342 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

considered as trespassers against the individual welfare, 
in conformity with Article 993 of the Penal Code of the 
District, which is in force in the whole Republic. 

By monastic orders is understood those religious associa- 
tions whose members live under certain regulations pecu- 
liarly their own, by means of vows or promises, temporary 
or perpetual and subject to one or more superiors, even 
though each and every individual of the order should 
possess a distinct habitation. 

The rights of religious bodies, as provided by the law, 
and represented by their superior in each locality, are as 
follows: I. The right of petition. II. Of ownership in 
the temples acquired according to law, which right will be 
governed by the particular laws of the State in which the 
edifices are located, even though the association be extinct 
in each locality, or when the property has been abandoned. 

III. To receive charities or bequests which, however, can 
never consist of real estate, acknowledgments in same, 
nor in obligations or promises for future fulfillment, be it 
under pretense of testamentary institution, donation, 
legacy, or any other character of obligation of the 
kind, as all such will be considered null and void. 

IV. The right to receive these alms in the interior of the 
churches through the medium of the collectors whom they 
may appoint, with the understanding that beyond these the 
appointment of all such collectors is absolutely prohibited, 
those appointing being included in Art. 413 of the Penal 
Code of the District, which article has been declared effect- 
ive throughout the Republic. 

In addition, they may have direct dominion over the 
temples which, in conformity with the law of July 12, 1859, 
have been nationalized and which were placed at the service 
of the Catholics, as also those which having been poste- 
riorly ceded to any religious institution, continue to belong 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 343 

to the nation, but its exclusive use, preservation and im- 
provement, shall be at the disposal of the religious institu- 
tion to whom they have been ceded, while no decree of 
consolidation of the property has been made. 



Economical Organization. 

IV. The first principal church was founded in the Penins- 
ula of Yucatan, by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova, in the 
year 1517, under the name of " Nuestra Senora de los 
Remedios " (Our Lady of Succor). On September, 1830, 
the first Archbishopric was erected, whose see was in the 
capital of the viceregency ; the one of Michoacan, with its 
seat Morelia was built August 18th, 1536 ; the one of 
Guadalajara, July 31st, 1548; and finally when His Excel- 
lency, Archbishop Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Davalos 
died, they founded the Archbishoprics of Oaxaca, 
Monterey and Durango. 

The actual organization is as follows: 

Archbishoprick of Mexico ; of the bishopricks of Puebla, Tulanclngo, 
Chilapa, Veracruz and Cuernavaca. Archbishoprick of Guadalajara of 
the bishopricks of Colima, Zacatecas and Tepic. Archbishoprick of 
Michoacan; of the bishopricks of Queretaro, Leon and Zamora. Arch- 
bishoprick of Oaxaca; of the bishopricks Yucatan, Chiapas, Tabasco and 
Tehuantepec. Archbishoprick of Monterrey; of the bishopricks of S. 
Luis Potosi and Tamaulipas. Archbishoprick of Durango; of the 
bishopricks of Chihuahua, Sonora and Sinaloa. Apostolic vicarage of 
Lower California. 

According to the official data published by the Secretary 
of Public Works, the number of vicarages and parishes, 
churches and chapels of the Catholic Church in the Repub- 



344 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

lie in 1889, not including those recently created, was as 
follows : 

Vicarages Churches 

and Parishes, and Chapels. Total. 

Archbishoprick of Mexico 203 1,654 1,857 

Bishoprick of Puebla 187 2,513 2,700 

" " Oasaca 134 1,000 1,134 

« " Chiapas .'. 40 500 540 

" " Yucatan.... 84 234 318 

» " Tabasco 12 100 112 

" « Tulancingo 70 400 470 

" "Veracruz 64 100 164 

" " Chilapa 75 379 454 

" " Tamaulipas 39 41 80 

Archbishoprick of Michoacan 58 300 358 

Bishop of San Luis Potosi 33 171 204 

" " Queretaro 29 107 136 

" " Leon 23 100 123 

" " Zamora 36 100 136 

Archbishoprick of Guadalajara 106 376 482 

Bishop of Durango 45 250 295 

«• "Linares 36 135 171 

" " Sonora 55 200 255 

" " Zacatecas 20 100 120 

Apostolic Vicarage of Lower California 3 3 

Totals 1,349 8,763 10,112 

PROTESTANT RELIGION. 



ABSTRACT FROM THE REPORT OF THE STATISTICS OF 
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN MEXICO 1888 (REVISED TO 
1892). 

I. The Field. 

Total of Prot- 
estant Missions. 

V. Number of centers of operation 87 

" of congregations 469 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



345 



II. The Workers. 

Number of ordained missionaries 59 

" of nnordained missionaries (that is, unordained men 

and wives of ordained and assistant missionaries) 51 

" of foreign lady teachers 67 

Whole number of foreign workers 177 

Number of native preachers ordained ' ill 

" of native preachers unordained „.... 161 

" of native helpers 177 

" of other native helpers 63 

Total number of native workers 512 

Grand total of native and foreign workers 689 

III. The Churches. 

Number of churches organized 385 

" of communicants 16,250 

" of probable adherents 49,512 

IV. The Schools. 

Number of training and theological schools 7 

" of students in same 88 

"* of boarding schools and orphanages 23 

" of pupils in same 715 

" of common schools 164 

" of pupils in same 6,533 

Total numbers under instruction 7,336 

Number of Sunday-schools 347 

11 of Sunday-school teachers and officers 6,947 

" of Sunday-school scholars 9,814 

Total membership of Sunday-schools 10,508 

V. Publishing Interests. 

Number of publishing houses 5 

" of papers issued 11 

Pages of all lands of religious literature issued since the es- 
tablishment of a religious press 75,197,885 



346 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



VI. Properties. 

Number of church buildings 118 

Approximate value of same (including furniture) $391,675 

Number of parsonages 45 

Approximate value of same including society furniture $158,835 

Number of educational buildings. • 31 

Approximate value of same including furniture and utensils $256,940 

Value of publishing outfits $36,850 

Total value of all missionary property • ... $844,300 

Tatals 194 $1,688,600 

From the work entitled "Mexico," published in Wash- 
ington by the "Bureau of the American Republics," 
the following is quoted : " The first movement towards the 
formation of a Christian church, distinct from the Roman 
Catholic, which came to a successful issue, was begun in 
the country in 1868, when aid was asked of Protestants 
in the United States. The aid being afforded, there 
was organized in 1869, in the city of Mexico, what was 
called "The Church of Jesus in Mexico," which, how- 
ever, was not the result of missionary work so much as 
" a spontaneous movement originating among members of 
the Roman Catholic Church" in the country, who desired 
"a greater liberty of conscience, a purer worship, and a 
better church organization." 

The Rev. Henry C. Riley, a clergyman of the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church in the United States, went to Mex- 
ico, in 1869, and entered heartily into the work of " The 
Church of Jesus." In the same year the great church of 
San Francisco, as well as the chapel of Balvanera, was 
purchased by the Protestants, and services were conducted 
therein in Spanish and English. 

The existing main church of San Francisco was dedi- 
cated December 8, 1716, but the original monastery and 
church, whose site this edifice occupies, was built 
about 1607 on lands which had formerly been the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 347 

garden and wild beast house of the kings of Tenoch- 
titlan. Cortez provided funds for the building of the 
first church, and material was secured in the hewn 
stone from the steps of the great Teocalli (the 
Aztec temple). In this church Cortez heard masses, and 
for a time his bones found a resting-place. Here the 
Spanish viceroys, through the centuries, took part in the 
great festivals of the church. The Te Deum in celebration 
of Mexican independence was first echoed by its walls. 
Here the Liberator, Augustin Iturbide, worshiped, and 
here his funeral services were held when he died; and here, 
to-day, Protestant services are held. 

Three churches now stand on portions of the land covered 
by what were known formerly as the seven churches of San 
Francisco. They are the Church of Jesus ; Christ Church, 
where the services of the Church of England are held ; and 
the Methodist Episcopal Church of the Trinity. 

A short resume of the American Church Missionary 
Society is given in the following lines, penned by its 
General Secretary, under date of February 12, 1891 : 

In 1873 our society entered upon work in Mexico. We found there an 
organization entitled "The Church of Jesus." The Rev. Dr. Riley, a 
presbyter of the Protestant Episcopal Church, acted as our missionary 
there. Two very large buildings, formerly Roman Catholic churches, 
were purchased at an expense ©f $50,000, and, in addition to this, during 
the five years that we continued in charge of the work, over $83,000 were 
expended in the support of missionaries. More than 3,000 persons con- 
nected themselves with this Protestant movement, and in 1873 our 
society deemed it expedient to transfer this work to the Board of Missions 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church. After that date, the Rev. Dr. Riley 
was consecrated Bishop of the Valley of Mexico, but subsequently re- 
tired, and the board withdrew its support. At present the work is in 
the care of the presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, and is con- 
ducted by the Rev. William B. Gordon, resident presbyter. 

An orphanage for girls has long been sustained by Mrs. Hooker, 
formerly of Philadelphia, and an effort is now being made to erect a 
building for this orphanage at a cost of $20,000. 

The Protestant Episcopal missions and churches are 



348 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

many, and the congregations, especially in the city of 
Mexico, generally large and flourishing. This church 
maintains, besides the edifices mentioned, a chapel at Sec- 
ond Independencia street, No. 3, Mexico City, and many 
congregations and schools in other parts of the Republic, 
six congregations and two schools being in Hidalgo, and 
four congregations and two schools in Morelos. 

The Presbyterian Mission was begun in 1872, and central 
stations are maintained in the' city of Mexico, Zacatecas, 
San Luis Potosi, Jerez, Saltillo, and Lerdo, attached to 
which are numerous out-stations. All of these congrega- 
tions and schools are in a flourishing condition. 

The Methodist Episcopal Church began work in Mexico 
in 1873, and has made most rapid strides. The parts of 
the Republic where the work is carried on is divided into 
four districts, the Central, Coast, Northern, and Puebla, 
and into twelve circuits and twenty-eight stations. Accord- 
ina- to the statistics published in the seventy-second annual 
report of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church, for the year 1890, the strength of the mission 
was: Number of appointments, 101: foreign missionaries, 
9; assistant missionaries, 8; foreign missionaries of Wom- 
en's Foreign Missionary Society, 7; native workers of 
the same, 35; native ordained preachers, 10; native unor- 
dained preachers, 30; native teachers, 25; foreign teachers, 
3; other helpers, 38; adherents, 6,106; churches and 
chapels, 15, estimated to be worth $91,600 : halls and other 
places of worship, 26; parsonages or " homes " 15; esti- 
mated value of these, $100,900; high schools, 3; number 
of scholars attending, 115; number of teachers, 9; number 
of other day schools, 42; number of other day scholars, 
2,725 ; number of Sabbath schools, 47 ; number of 
Sabbath scholars, 8,641 ; value of orphanages, schools, 
hospitals, book rooms, etc., $111,340; volumes printed 
during the year, 170,330 ; pages printed during the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 349 

year, 2,637,000. The average attendance on Sunday 
worship was 2,305. There was a gain during the 
year of 28 congregations, and a net increase of 394 
members and probationers ; 349 conversions are reported, 
against 120 the year before; 6 day schools were added to 
the list, gaining an increase of 526 scholars ; three more 
Sabbath schools and 274 more Sabbath school scholars 
appear among the figures for the year. Three new churches 
were built and the church properties were increased $7,600 
in value over the preceding year, most of which amount 
was raised in the country. There were collected for self- 
support $9,146, against $6,708 the year before. 

The Baptist churches organized in Mexico are as follows : 
Under the Home Mission Society of New York, a church 
each at Monterey, Salinas, ^Garcia, Santa Rosa, Monte- 
morelos, Ebanos, Cadereyta, Apodaca, in the State of 
Nuevo Leon, and one in the city of Mexico. Under the 
Southern Baptist Convention there are churches at the 
following places : Saltillo, Patos, Progreso, Muzquiz, and 
Juarez, in the State of Coahuila. In 1886 there were thir- 
teen ordained Baptist ministers and five schools, which have 
considerably increased in number since that date. 

The American Friends Society has established missions 
at Matamoros, City of Mexico, and other places. 




350 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER II. 

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

I. Before we enlarge upon those late labors of the Gov- 
ernment which have been dedicated to the spread and im- 
provement of popular instruction, it will be necessary to 
quote, at the outset, the authorized exposition by the re- 
nowned lawyer and Secretary of Justice and Public In- 
struction, Hon. D. Joaquin Baranda, bearing upon this same 
important branch of the Administration, aud to enter into 
his memorial on the question, presented to Congress on the 
30th of November, 1888. It reads as follows: 

" The studies of the Sciences and of the Arts, as also the 
education of children, were not elements unknown to the 
ancient people of Anahuac, and to this, amongst others, 
bears testimony that grand monument of porphyry and its 
mystic emblems, in which the Aztecs read the progress of 
time during the day and year, and observed the changes of 
the seasons, as also the palaces of Mitla and Palenque, 
which, in their admirable ruins, reveal the secrets of the 
architecture of those times, bear mute testimony. On 
the other hand, it is also kuown that there existed 
establishments of instruction for those who dedicated them- 
selves to the preisthood and for those who followed the 
career of arms. But all these establishments closed their 
doors to the mass of the people, placing their teachings 
within the reach of the privileged class only, in accordance 
with the degree of culture realized in that social system. 

After the Conquest, the colony continued in its devel- 
opment of three hundred years, a favorable motion of the 
metropolis, and its instruction recommended first to the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 351 

secular and regular clergy, suffered the same effects which 
illustrious thinkers had become aware of beyond the ocean. 
But, when the chains of dependency had been broken, the new 
nation, urged on by the sentiment of freedom and by the 
lights generously spread by the genius of civilization of our 
country, exerted itself to profit by the advantages offered 
by the new political existence, carrying into practice the 
exercise of the rights which, with iron hand, its domina- 
tors had limited. The enterprise had to be large and toil- 
some, and that an idea might be had of its value, I shall 
examine, if only rapidly, the most important organic laws 
which, bearing upon public instruction, have been issued 
since the time of the independence, thus giving strength 
to the appreciation of the advances which, in the progress 
of years and by virtue of the change which had taken 
place upon the political field of the country, it has been 
possible to effect up to our time. 

The first law appeared on the 30th of October, 1833, and 
was compiled by D. Jose Luis Mora. Thi3 law contained 
conspicuous dispositions, its author having been inspired 
by the examples furnished by enlightened countries. The 
decrees of the 24th and 26th of the said month completed, 
with efficacious prescription, the plan of study to which 
the teaching in the Federal District should be subject. 

But in those days of exaltation among the political 
parties, when the spirit of exclusiveness raised mighty 
impediments to all liberal ideas in favor of the people, it 
happened that as the first of these decrees, which, in itself, 
was an open emanation of the liberal principles, authorized 
the expropriation in favor of the Public Schools of some 
landed property in the hands of the clergy, the revolt 
reacted with terrible consequences against the established 
government, and said laws were buried under the ruins of 
the routed party. 

By disposition of July 31st, 1834, published by edict on 



352 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the 2d of August following, several urgent measures were 
dictated in reference to the matter, and the Executive was 
given a term for the publication of the Plan of Study, which 
was published, with the character of provisory, on the 17th 
of November of the same year. 

Naturally, owing to the change which had taken place in 
the politics of the country, the former dispositions were 
mostly left without effect, and the property was restored 
to the clergy while the University that had been suppressed 
was re-established. 

During nine years of observance, in which the necessities 
of the Republic were growing, and with them the want of 
widening public education, the defect of that plan and the 
convenience to fill the vacancies which were found in its 
precepts, made itself preceptible. The Government then, 
invested with extraordinary authority, published a new plan 
of studies on the 18th of August, 1843, producing uni- 
formity in the teaching, and establishing a gradual system 
in the matters of the classes, — an object of the greatest 
importance, upon which depends, in a great measure, the 
result of scholastic labors. 

By decree of November 8th, of the said year, a principle 
of notorious transcendency was conquered in favor of the 
future of public instruction, inasmuch as all the establish- 
ments sustained by the rents of the exchequer were declared 
national. Thus placed at the head of instruction, the 
Government found itself in greater aptitude to dictate the 
necessary and convenient measures toward the improve- 
ment of this important branch, and to exercise an immediate 
vigilance over all matters connected therewith. As an effect 
of the Central System, it was provided for in said plan that 
it should be observed in all the departments, the bases for 
the formation of the respective ordinances were re-estab- 
lished, as were also fixed the attributions and duties of the 
Directive Committee, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 353 

The re-establishment of the Constitution of 1824 pro- 
clamed in the year 1846, made itself felt immediately after- 
wards in everything relating to public instruction, inasmuch 
as by the decree of October 23d of the said year, it was 
ordered that the States should recover their rights above 
the instruction, which the centralism had taken away from 
them, and little by little the confusion occasioned by the 
civil disturbances was repaired in this branch so important 
to the public. 

On the 19th of December, 1854, a uew plan of studies 
was promulgated, which plan, profiting by the ideas that 
caused the triumph of the revolution of 1852, revealed cer- 
tain anti-democratic sentiments. But the plan did not re- 
main in vigor for more than a few months. After the lapse 
of that time, a decree was issued on the 22d of September, 
1855, according to which the law of^ August 18th, 1843, 
again went into force. 

When the Department of Justice was in the hands of that 
eminent jurist, Mr. Ignacio Kamirez, another law bearing 
upon public instruction was promulgated *on the 15th of 
April, 1861, which law was true to the spirit of the one 
published in 1833. But, in consequence of the difficult 
situation of the country, brought about by the foreign war, 
the law could not obtain a practical application. 

On the re-establishment in 1869 in the city of Mexico of 
the Constitutional Government, the branch of public in- 
struction, so important, found itself in a most abandoned 
condition, so much so that a vigorous and efficacious re- 
organization became necessary. The plants of secondary 
instruction, which, by the change in the political system of 
the country had been closed, demanded their timely re- 
establishment, in order that the pupils could continue their 
interrupted studies and could be examined. 

To this end, the executive dictated, in the first place, 
the convenient measures bearing upon the re-opening of 

23 



354 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

the classes and improvement of the primary schools, ban- 
ishing from the methods of teaching such ideas as might 
not be in harmony with republican principles. 

In order to procure the definite arrangement of instruc- 
tion, the organic law was published that same year on the 
2d of December, its by-law coming into force on the 24th 
of January, 1868." 

Since the year 1861, the education of woman had re- 
ceived serious consideration with a view of widening the 
field of her usefulness, but the law of 1867, still more 
liberal, placed within her reach powerful elements of illus- 
tration by means of which she might elevate herself to 
the position occupied by the sex in civilized society. With 
the idea of correcting the defects which were found to exist 
upon a practical test of the law in question, the Executive 
was authorized by the decree of January 14th, 1869, which 
designated the bases which should serve as a standard in 
modifying these provisions. 

Inspired and governed by the lessons which experience 
had taught, tmd with the object of giving a greater im- 
petus to instruction, extending especially the privi- 
lege of primary education to all social classes, the 
Executive in question promulgated the organic law of 
May 15th, 1869, which amended the law of December, 
1867 ; and on November 9th of the same year (1869) the 
necessary rules and regulations were adopted. True it is 
that these were not the only changes which should have 
been made in the law alluded to ; but, it soon became nec- 
essary to resort to the most imperative measure, and make 
the instruction obligatory in character. In fact, article 6 
of the law in question made primary instruction obligatory 
in the Federal District and Territories, in conformity with 
the requirements of the regulations adopted. A beginning 
was made and a principle established, but the means for 
obtaining the desired result, which calculated upon the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 355 

stimulus which premiums and honorable distinctions to the 
most diligent pupils would give, were not equal to the 
emergency; and it became necessary to establish a system 
of punishment in order to overcome the negligence of the 
parents or those intrusted with the education of the chil- 
dren. With this end in view, the Government presented a 
plan on April 4th, 1873 ; but owing to unforeseen obstacles, 
the legislative power was unable to give it any considera- 
tion. 

COMPULSORY EDUCATION. 

II. On the 8th of October, 1887, the Commission of 
Public Instruction of the Chamber of Deputies presented 
a project of law treating of compulsory instruction within 
the Federal District and territories, which project, after 
mature discussion by both Chambers, gave origin to the 
promulgation of the law of May 25th, 1888. 

This law sanctions the doctrine of making obligatory the 
primary elements of instruction for children of six to 
twelve years of age, gives free admission to the official 
primary schools, and orders the establishment in the 
Federal District of two schools for primary instruc- 
tion, one for boys, the other for girls, for, at least, 
every four thousand inhabitants, which proportion may be 
changed as far as the territories of Tepic and Lower 
California are concerned. These schools will be in charge 
of the local authorities, who shall take care of the scholas- 
tic funds and shall appoint the directors and teachers from 
among persons duly titled by the official normal schools. 

The scholastic funds are composed of the subventions 
allowed by the General Government, — the sums destined 
for the schools by the Municipal appropriations, — the pro- 
duct of Municipal taxes levied for this special purpose, — 
the amount of fines imposed in accordance with law and 



356 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

their regulations, as well as the donations and legacies 
destined for public Municipal instruction. 

In order to carry into effect the principle of compulsory 
instruction, it is ordered that persons who exercise paternal 
power, those in charge of minors, and, in special cases, the 
owners of factories, shops, plantations and ranches, every 
year shall prove that the children for whom they are 
responsible receive or have received the necessary primary 
elements of instruction. In case of violation of this order 
they shall be punished administratively, with a fine rang- 
ing from 10 cents to 10 dollars, or with imprisonment from 
one to ten days. 

The law imposed upon the President the obligation of 
organizing within one year the official primary instruction, 
under the terms therein stipulated, but as it was desired to 
generalize its provisions in all the States of the Union, 
where compulsory primary instruction should be exacted 
in a preferential way, said organization was suspended 
until this object had been attained. 

In fact, the labors undertaken in support of public in- 
struction throughout the country suffered from lack of 
cohesion and uniformity, — the laws on the subject that 
fixed the assignments and distribution of instruction were, 
as a rule, different in every State, and those treating of 
primary instruction were exposed to the changes and modi- 
fications which the respective city councils saw fit to make. 
This state of affairs placed difficulties in the progress of 
instruction, as well as causing injury to the professors and 
pupils. 

PEDAGOGICAL CONGRESS. 

III. In order to eradicate this lack of government, and 
with a view to giving uniformity to the legislation and 
scholastic regulations of the States and Federal District 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



357 



and Territories, the Minister of Justice proposed the 
assemblage of a Congress of instruction by means of the 
circular of June 1st, 1889, inviting the Governors of the 
States to each appoint a representative to attend the con- 
ference that was to be held in the Capital of Mexico. 

The principal points to be submitted to the de- 
liberation of this Congress were: 1st — Primary, 
laical instruction, compulsory and gratuitous. The 
uniformity of this instruction was to embrace: the age 
in which children should be received, — the classes that 
are to be taught, —the progressive order of study,— the 
number of years that this should last, and the author- 
ized means of enforcing compliance with these rules. 
The establishment in towns of small schools for chil- 
dren and adults, and in the country of rural schools 
with traveling teachers. 2d. Preparatory instruction, 
gratuitous and voluntary. The uniformity of this shall 
comprehend : the studies which constitute such classed for 
a complete and rigorous course, such as the preparation 
for all professions, the scientific distribution and order in 
which these shall be taught, programme and number of 
years which such instruction must last. 3d. Professional 
instruction, voluntary and protected by the State. The 
uniformity of this shall comprehend : the subjects which 
form each course, — order and method of teaching these, — 
number of years which such instruction shall last, — prac- 
tical professional programmes and rules to which the pro- 
fessional examinations shall be subjected. In order that 
the resolutions of Congress might have the desired effect, 
they were submitted to the classified regulations pursuant 
to the Federal Constitution and to those of the individ- 
ual States for their acceptance and compliance. 

To enable the Congress of Instruction to dispose of the 
greatest number of these data in the course of its opera- 
tions, the Governors were requested, by means of the 



358 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

circular of October 5th of the same year, to furnish 
statistics relative to the number of pupils, number of es- 
tablishments, total cost of public instruction, resources of 
its subsistence, as well as copies of the laws, regulations, 
methods and programmes in force in their States, etc., 
etc. 

On the 29th of the same month a decree was issued for 
the Congress, and on the 25th of November a summary of 
the themes and programmes upon which the deliberations 
should be based. 

The Congress was installed on the 28th of the said 
month, in the Chamber of Deputies, under the presidency 
of Mr. Baranda, Minister of Justice and Public Instruction. 

Its sessions were opened on the following 1st of Decem- 
ber, and, after four months, were closed on the 31st of 
March, 1890. 

In its deliberations, Congress took for a basis the prob- 
lem of uniforming the national education, as set forth in 
the respective call, and although it was accepted by the 
Governors of the States, still this problem required a 
proper definition and thorough discussion, and was finally 
adopted with some insignificant limitations due to the 
diverse conditions of the country. 

The principle of obligatory instruction, gratuitous and 
laical, was determined, the manner in which the authorities 
of the State should carry into effect this obligatory ele- 
mentary instruction was defined, as well as the responsi- 
bility of the heads of families. The fulfillment of the 
obligation was insured by means of the penal sanction, in 
the elements of which were inserted the proper admonitions 
of fines and arrest. The subject of creating rural schools 
with traveling teachers, and of infantile colonies in the 
country, was discussed and approved, as well as the estab- 
lishment and organization of the juvenile schools (" escuelas 
de parvulos "), and those for adults, and the introduction 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 359 

of manual labors as an educational element in the public 
schools, with military exercises, etc., etc. 

Many of the questions contained in the summary com- 
piled by the Department on the 21st of November were left 
pending when this first Congress came to a close. 

SECOND CONGRESS OF INSTRUCTION. 

In order to continue and cement the labors undertaken, 
the Minister of Justice addressed another call to the Gov- 
ernors of the States, under date of June 19th, 1890, so 
that said Governors should appoint their representatives 
for the second Congress of Instruction, which was held on 
the 1st of December of the same year. 

On the 31st of October, the regulations of this Congress 
were issued, and it was inaugurated on the 29th of 
November, beginning its sessions on the 1st of December 
of the same year. 

This Congress occupied itself preferentially in the solu- 
tion of the questions pending the organization of the 
primary schools and those relative to the ones for normal 
and preparatory studies, closing its sessions in March, 1891. 

INSTRUCTION LAW IN FORCE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 

After the adjournment of the first Congress of Instruc- 
tion, the Legislative Power promulgated the law of May 
28th, 1890, authorizing the President to organize and reg- 
ulate primary instruction in the Federal District and 
Territories, on the basis that this instruction be uniform, 
laical, gratuitous and compulsory. In virtue thereof, the 
Executive issued the respective reglamentary law of 
March 21st, 1891, which went into effect on the following 
7th of January. 

Agreeable to this law, primary elementary instruction is 



360 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

obligatory for children of both sexes of from six to twelve 
years of age, and can be acquired in any official or pri- 
vate establishment, or privately, — and, furthermore, the 
obligatory instruction imparted in the official schools shall 
be gratuitous and laical. 

The programme of obligatory instruction, which is 
developed in four years, is the following: — 

The practical duties of life and civic instruction. The 
national language, including reading and writing lessons. 
Arithmetic. Eudiments of physical and natural sciences. 
Practical notions of geometry. Eudiments of geography 
and the national history. Drawing. Sketching of common 
and simple objects. Singing. Gymnasium, and military 
exercises. 

In the girls' school the same programme applies, with the 
necessary modifications in the gymnastic class, and adding 
manual labors to be distributed as follows: — 

1st Year. — Embroidery. Stitching. Hemming. Knit- 
ting with wool and thread with wooden needles. 2d Year. — 
Straight back-stitching. Knitting of designs, forked and 
coarse stitching. Embroidery with colored threads. Bud 
stitching. 3d Year. — Sewing. Back-stitching, reaper 
fashion. Double sewing. Tucking. Knitting with metal 
needles. Embroidery on coarse stuffs. 4th Year. — 
Marginal embroidery. Simple fastenings. Eaveling out. 
Practical and simple ideas of the cutting of the principal 
parts of dress. 

When this programme of compulsory instruction cannot 
be put into practice, the adoption of the following one, 
which shall likewise develope in four years, will be sufficient 
to comply with the law : 

Practical ideas of the duties of life. Civic instruction 
and the country's history. The national language, com- 
prising reading and writing lessons. Arithmetic. General 
lessons. Gymnastic games and exercises. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 361 

For the primary schools, the scholastic year consists of 
ten months, commencing on the 7th of January and lasting 
until the 2d of November, when the classes shall be sus- 
pended to begin the examinations ; the scholastic week 
shall consist of five days, counting from Monday till Fri- 
day ; the daily work of the first year must not exceed 
4^- hours, 5 hours in the second, 5^ in the third, and 6 
in the fourth. The time occupied in any lesson shall not 
exceed 20 minutes in the first year, 25 in the second, thirty 
in the third, and forty in the fourth. In the time specified 
for the daily work is included a half-hour of recreation, 
which the children shall enjoy in the morning and after- 
noon. 

It is understood that in no class of the official or private 
schools shall punishments be administered that degrade or 
invalidate the children, and still less any of those prohibited 
by the Constitution. 

In the elementary schools, supported by public funds, 
there shall be a director who may have under his charge up 
to fifty pupils, an assistant being named for every new 
group of fifty children who may attend the establishment. 

In those schools where there cannot be more than one 
teacher, the supplementary programme before mentioned 
shall be adopted, and the system of half time shall be 
employed in the instruction. These same programmes 
and system shall be used in the mixed schools, which will 
be opened in places, where, for lack of funds, it is not 
possible to establish two schools, in such a manner that the 
boys may attend in the morning and the girls in the after- 
noon, or vice versa. 

The half-time system consists in dividing into two dis- 
tinct groups the total attendance of pupils, so that one of 
these groups may receive instruction in the morning and 
the other in the afternoon, giving to each group the 
instruction detailed in the corresponding programme. 



362 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



SUPERIOR BOARD OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

The subjects appertaining to primary instruction will be 
in charge of a special body, called the Superior Board of 
Primary Instruction, which was installed since the month of 
June, 1891. Before the establishment of this Board, the 
Directive Board of Public Instruction enjoyed the same 
attributes in subjects of Primary Instruction, in accordance 
with the law of the 15th of March, 1869. 

Vigilance committees exist in each of the principal 
wards of the city of Mexico, and in the District Prefa- 
ture as far as each of the municipalities and the territories 
of Tepic and Lower California are concerned. The object 
of these committees is to see that the law is complied with 
relative to the obligations of fathers, tutors, or others in 
charge of children of scholastic age. 



PRIZES TO THE PROFESSORS. 

The professors of the official schools who distinguish 
themselves for their attention and painstaking work, shall 
receive, as a reward, at the end of their first ten years of 
service, a bronze medal, a silver one at the end of twenty 
years, and one of gold when they shall have completed 
thirty years of service, as well as their corresponding 
diplomas. After thirty years of service, the professors 
have the right to request a cessation of work, with the 
enjoyment of their salary, which will be doubled in the 
event that they choose to continue in their employment. 

The circular of May 15, 1888, has established a premium 
of $200 and another of $100, which, at the end of each 
scholastic year, shall be donated to the professors of the 
national primary schools who distinguish themselves the 
most in the examination of their pupils, — and another 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 363 

similar premium is thereby established for the directors of 
the schools for girls. Besides these, the interested parties 
receive a diploma setting forth their distinction. 



SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 
SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 

IV. This School was established in 1768 by virtue of a 
royal decree. For a long time its home was the old convent 
of Belem ; afterwards it was united with the college of San 
Ildefonso, which was formerly devoted to the teaching of 
ecclesiastical laws and sciences. The quarrels which arose 
between the pupils of the two establishments caused the 
school of medicine to be removed to San Juan de Letran, 
which devoted itself to the study of Jurisprudence. In this 
building the School occupied an independent department 
but one which was still too small, and in consequence a 
suitable place was given to it by adding to the school the 
free portion of the building of San Hipolito. There it 
stayed till 1853, when, owing to the conversion of the 
building which it occupied into a barrack, it was found nec- 
essary to buy that of the ex-Inquisition for $50,286. Here 
it opened its classes in 1854 and here is where it now is. 

The courses studied in the establishment are Medicine, 
Surgery, Midwifery and Pharmaceutics. 

For the year 1893 the professors lecture on the following 
programme of studies: Descriptive Anatomy, Histology, 
Elementary Pharmacy, Physiology, Internal Pathology, 
External Pathology, External Clinics, Local Anatomy, 
Internal Clinics, Therapeutics, General Pathology, Oper- 
atory Medicine, Midwifery, Hygiene and Meteorology, 
Legal Medicine and the Clinics of Midwifery. 

For the profession of a chemist and druggist the subjects 



364 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

studied are : Pharmacy, both theoretical and practical, His- 
tory of drugs, chemical analysis and practical pharma- 
ceutics. 

The female pupils that study for midwives go through 
the classes of theoretical midwifery and its clinics. 

There are also what are called finishing classes, namely : 
Theoretical and practical Ophthalmology, Gynecology, 
Bacteriology, Pathological Anatomy, and Pathological 
Histology. 

The number of pupils enrolled on the college books is 
305, of whom 279 intend to follow the profession of medical 
surgeons, 13 that of chemists and druggists, and 13 of the 
female sex that of midwives. The Government estimates 
assign to this School the sum of $62,388.75 per annum. 

NATIONAL MEDICAL INSTITUTE OF MEXICO. 

This institution was founded by decree of December 18, 
1888, at the initiatory suggestion of the Department of 
Colonization and Industry, and was formally opened on 
July 1st, 1890, its purpose being the study of the flora, 
fauna, climatology and medical geography of the country, 
and their practical application in medicine. 

It is under the jurisdiction of the Department above 
mentioned, and is governed by a faculty composed of 
a Director, a Prefect, Subprefect, Secretary, Assistant 
Secretary and a Treasurer appointed by the General 
Government. 

The discharge of the scientific work is under the super- 
vision of five divisions: 1st, Natural History; 2nd, Analy- 
tical Chemistry; 3rd, Experimental Physiology; 4th, 
Clinical Therapeutics, and 5th, Climatology and Medical 
Geography, which divisions have their special departments, 
and are provided with the necessary instruments and 
utensils. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 365 

The first division is composed of three professors, who are 
required to be doctors or pharmacists, an assistant, two 
draughtsmen, a photographer, a dissecting collector and a 
clerk, and its special objects are: the collection of plants 
and animals; to give a history of, classify, describe and 
study properties and characters ; to form herbariums and 
collections of dissected animals ; and furnish the other com- 
missions with the specimens which they may require with 
the corresponding data. 

The second division is composed of three professors of 
chemistry, who must be doctors or pharmacists, and five 
preparers. Its purpose is : to analyze the products which 
the other divisions furnish it with, and separate the ele- 
mental parts contained in same ; make an elementary analy- 
sis of these parts when they are recent discoveries; and 
arrange their formula ; make the requisite preparations for 
experiments by the third division and furnish the other 
commissions with the data which may be required. 

The third division is composed of four professors (three 
doctors and a veterinary surgeon) an assistant and a me- 
chanic. The objects of this division are : to determine 
the dynamic-medical action of the contiguous elements 
or preparations which engage the attention of the Sec- 
ond division ; and forward to the Governing Board the 
results of their studies, advising when same may be applied 
to therapeutics, or their relative opinions on the subject. 

The fourth division consists of two professors, one of 
whom is a doctor, the other a surgeon ; also all those mil- 
itary physicians and doctors appertaining to the public 
beneficence, private and civil, who may wish to attach them- 
selves as co-laborers, as also six assistant doctors. The 
object of this division is the study of the clinical applica- 
tions which the substances already considered by the first, 
second and third divisions may possess. 

Composing the fifth division are two professors of med- 



3Q6 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

icine, an assistant "and a clerk, and the study of the follow- 
ing points is their main object: the distribution of endemic 
diseases in all the districts of the country ; the distribution 
of epidemics and spread of same ; local ethiological condi- 
tions in their relation with the two preceding points and 
the nature of the diseases ; climacteric conditions and classi- 
fication of the climates throughout the country, for the 
purpose of forming a general climatological map ; distri- 
bution of the waters, with the object of forming a gen- 
eral hydrological map ; and the distribution of the races 
and their classification. 

Medals of honor, of which there are two classes, silver 
and gold, with their respective diplomas, are conferred on 
those professors of the Institute who lend efficient services 
to the same. The silver medal is awarded after five years 
of service to the professor who shall have complied strictly 
with his obligations, or published in the Institute ten orig- 
inal works ; the gold medal is awarded at the expiration of 
fifteen years' service, to the professor who, during this 
period, shall have given strict compliance with the duties 
assigned him, or have written and published an original 
work on the points comprehended in the plan of the Insti- 
tute. In the absence of such a work, this requisite may be 
supplied by furnishing fifteen monographics covering points 
identical with those already alluded to. In lieu of fifteen 
years of services, the gold medal may be obtained as a rec- 
ognition of a scientific discovery which may be compre- 
hended in the plan of studies of the establishment. 

Until a special hospital shall have been founded for the 
Institute, there has been established a consulting room, 
where medicines are furnished gratis to patients. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 367 



NATIONAL MEXICAN MEDICAL CONGRESS. 

The School of Medicine of Mexico, which has without 
doubt attained the eminence reached by the best schools of 
this character in both Europe and America, has, within the 
last few years, achieved an enviable reputation for the 
energetic efforts of its graduates in the direction of ex- 
tending its field of scientific investigation throughout the 
entire Republic, with the object of embodying in its doc- 
trines the result of its observations and studies and finally, 
has devoted no little energy to uniting in one cohesive 
whole its isolated forces. With this end in view, on Feb- 
ruary 2d, 1892, there was convened in the city of Mexico 
an assembly which should be entitled the " National Mex- 
ican Medical Congress," of which Dr. Eduardo R. Garcia 
was the moving spirit. 

This Congress held sessions on December 6th, 7th, 9th 
and 10th, 1892, with an attendance of 267 members, rep- 
resenting the various States, within a few days after the 
" International Hygiene Congress," had concluded its im- 
portant labors (December 3d, 1992). 

The Executive Committee was formed in the following 
manner: Dr. Manuel Cormona y Valle, President; Dr. 
Rafael Lavista, 1st Vice-President ; Dr. Eduardo Liceaga, 
2nd Vice-President; Directors, Drs. Ramos, Icaza, Manuel 
Gutierrez, Francisco P. Chacon, Eduardo Garcia y Andres 
Almaras, pharmacist ; General Secretary, Dr. Louis E. 
Ruia; Relator, Dr. Secundino E. Sosa; Treasurer, Dr. 
Domingo Orvananos. 

In order to complete its labors, fourteen sessions were 
determined upon, regulated by the subjects for discussion, 
which represented ninety-seven works, all original, upon 
national medicine and surgery, and which will be published 
in two large volumes. 



368 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The Congress having finished its labors, the Executive 
Committee held an extra session, with one representative 
'from each State for the purpose of determining the matter 
of future conventions, and it was decided : 1st, That the 
next should be held in December, 1894, in San Luis 
Potosi ; 2nd, that the new Board of Directors should be 
composed of the following members: Dr. Eduardo 
Liceaga, President; Dr. Jesus Almaraz, President of the 
Local Board of San Luis Potosi; Dr. Miguel Otero, 1st 
Vice-President; Dr. Gregorio Mendizabal, 2nd Vice-Presi- 
dent; Directors, Drs. Garcia and Ramos, Mexico City; 
Sta. Maria, Durango and Ita of Puebla. 

The Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, the Hon. 
Joaquin Boranda, presided at the opening and closing ses- 
sions of the new scientific organization, which promises 
such brilliant results for the future in the field of national 
medicine and surgery. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS. 

The Mining Ordinances of the 22d of May, 1783, ordered 
the establishment of a seminary in Mexico for the teach- 
ing of metallurgical subjects. In accomplishment of this 
regulation a college was opened on the 1st of January, 1792, 
but the building which the institution was destined finally 
to occupy was begun to be raised on the 22d of March, 1797, 
according to plans drawn up by D. Manuel Tolsa, and was 
finished on the 3d of April, 1813. Its cost, including the 
repairs which it underwent in 1830 and in later years, 
amounts to about $1,500,000. In it the National School 
of Engineers, which was so named by law on the 2d of 
December, 1867, is at present established. The school, 
as well as that of Agriculture and Veterinary Surgery, was 
no longer dependent, as it had hitherto been, upon the 
Secretaryship of Justice. They were separated by law 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 



369 



on the 28th of November, 1881, when all business institutions 
and establishments for the propagation of agriculture and 
mining were assigned to the Secretary of Colonization, In- 
dustry and Commerce, and the President authorized the 
necessary reforms. 

On the 15th of February, 1883, the decree reforming 
the law of public instruction as regarded the teaching of 
agriculture and mining, was issued and this is the decree 
that is still in force ; the professional studies were extended 
so as to cover a wider field; new classes were opened and 
the necessary distinctions made between the professions by 
determining the studies which belonged to each of them. 
On the 15th of the following May the regulations re- 
garding them were published. These rules have since that 
time guided the studies of both schools, although these 
latter have been again made dependent upon the Secretary- 
ship of Justice. 

For the teaching of mining there is the National School of 
Engineers and the school anexed to it, called the Practical 
School of Mining and Metallurgical Labors of Pachuca. It is 
also ordered that there shall be established work-schools 
for teaching mining and metallurgy at various places 
in the country, so that in them maybe formed and trained 
administrators and overseers of mines, workers and 
specialists in some branch of the mining industry. 

In the School of Engineers the following professions are 
taught : The assayer and sorter of metals, the topograph- 
icafand hydrographical engineer, the industrial engineer, 
the road bridge and canal engineer, the mining engineer 
and metallurgist, the geographical engineer, and that of 
the electrical, engineer established by decree on the 1st of 
June, 1892, when the chair of general telegraphy was 
abolished, though formerly a part of the establishment. 

In order to be enrolled in the School of Engineers with all 
the rights of a pupil, the candidate must show by a certifi- 

24 



370 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

cate from the National Preparatory School that he has 
been examined and passed successfully either at it or some 
official school of the States, in the following subjects : 
Spanish grammar, Greek roots, French, English, elements 
of German, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane and in 
space, rectilinear and spherical trigonometry, analytical 
geometry, rational mechanics, experimental physics, gen- 
eral chemistry, natural history, cosmography, physical and 
political geography and especially that of Mexico, logic, 
lineal and landscape drawing. 

The following are the professional studies for the pro- 
fessions established in the School : 

For the assayer and sorter of metals : Analytical chem- 
istry and docimacy mineralogy, sorting, coining and the 
administration of mints, and the practice of these branches. 
A decree of the 1st of June, 1892, added to the list 
industrial chemistry. 

For the topographical and hydrographical engineer: 
Higher algebra, analytical geometry and infinitesimal 
calculus, descriptive geometry, topography and water- 
measurement, hydrography and meteorology, topograph- 
ical drawing and practice in these branches. 

For the industrial engineer : Higher algebra, analytical 
geometry and infinitesimal calculus; descriptive geometry 
and water measurement; stereotomy and carpentry, ana- 
lytical and applied mechanics, industrial mechanics , con- 
struction and fixing of machines ; analytical and industrial 
chemistry, and docimacy meteorology, knowledge of build- 
ing materials, mechanical theory of building and practical 
building, topographical machine and architectural drawing; 
practice. 

For road bridge and canal engineers : Higher algebra, 
analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descriptive 
geometry, topography and water measurement, stereotomy 
and carpentry, analytical and applied mechanics, hydrog- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 371 

rapky and meteorology, practical building and mechanical 
theory of building, knowledge of building materials, 
common roads and railways, bridges, canals, harbor 
works, graphic statics, the study of which was declared 
obligatory for the course of the road, bridge and canal engi- 
neer and also for that of the mining engineer and metal- 
lurgists by a decree of the 29th of November, 1890; 
topographical, machine and architectural drawing, compo- 
sition, practice. 

For the mining engineer and metallurgist : Higher alge- 
bra, analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descrip- 
tive geometry, topography and water measurement, analyti- 
cal and applied mechanics, stereotomy and carpentry, knowl- 
edge of building materials, mechanical theory of building 
and practical building, analytical chemistry and docimacy, 
meteorology, mineralogy, paleontology or fossils, and 
geology, mineral labors, artesian wells, and mining legis- 
lation, metallurgy, graphic statics, topographical machine 
and architectural drawing, practice. 

For the geographical engineer : Higher algebra, analytical 
geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descriptive geometry, 
topography and water measurement, niathematicaTphysics, 
calculation of probability and theory of errors, hydrography 
and meteorology, analytical mechanics, elements of cosmog- 
raphy, geodcesia and physical and practical astronomy, 
elements of geology, typographical and geographical draw- 
ing, practice. 

For the teaching of mining and metallurgy in the work 
schools the pupils go through the elementary theoretical 
studies of arithmetic and receive some ^ knowledge of 
algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and me- 
chanics, chemistry, metallurgy and mining labors ; 
accounts, administration and economy of mines and works 
together with the application of all these elements to 
practical questions in the various branches ; Spanish; and 



6 



372 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

lineal drawing. These studies are merely aids to the real 
practice which is the predominant feature of the work- 
schools. The instruction in the National School of 
Engineers and the School annexed to it is free and neither 
for entrance nor for examinations is any fee required. 

There are two kinds of pupils enrolled, namely, proprie- 
tary, that is, those who intend to adopt one of the professions 
taught in the School, and supernumerary, that is, those who 
wish merely to attend one or more of the classes which are 
siven in the establishment. Besides this the classes are 
public and any person that wishes may attend them. 

The Government has established pensions in order to 
stimulate the studies of those pupils who in the judgment 
of the committee of professors of the School are deserving 
of them. There are in like manner finishing pensions for 
those pupils of the School and of the work-schools who 
after obtaining their title or diploma are proposed by the 
above mentioned committee to be sent abroad in order to 
follow out their finishing studies during two years. 

The professional titles are given them by the Secretary 
of Justice upon previous advice from the managers of the 
School and after the pupils have passed successfully the 
general examination. The pupils of the work-schools, in 
like cases, are sent a corresponding diploma ; whilst those 
who have only received instruction and practice in some 
one special subject taught receive a certificate of ability. 

It is only the professional title that authorizes a pupil 
to follow the career of a mining engineer or metallurgist : 
the diploma and certificate of ability merely express the 
person's knowledge of the branch for which they are 
given. 

The School has a meteorological observatory, and a 
library containing some important scientific works. Its 
cabinets of building materials, mineralogy, topography, 
geodoesia, astronomy and industrial mechanics are very 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 373 

interesting. The number of pupils in the establishment 
may be set down as averaging 120 yearly. The Government 
has assigned the sum of $67,527.40 per annum for its 
support. 



NATIONAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY 

SURGERY. 

The establishment of professorial chairs for teaching 
agriculture in Mexico was granted by the Directing Com- 
mittee of the old College of San Gregorio, and communi- 
cated to the Government by an initiative of the 4th of 
April, 1850. When its approbation was secured the 
President of the Republic issued a circular on the 17th of 
April of the same year, making it known to the Governors 
of States that they might inform the public. The agricul- 
tural teaching consisted of five courses, whilst the practice 
took place in the farms which the college held. But an 
agricultural school, properly such, was not established till 
1853, in the same year as its adjunct, the Veterinary, which 
was created on the 17th of August, and both were definitely 
installed on the 22cl of February, 1854, in the ex-convent 
of San Jacinto, and the neighboring tenements bought by 
the Government. At present the tenements belongino- to 
the School, including the portion occupied by the house and 
other buildings, measure 708,664 square meters. As has 
been already said the School was placed under the Fomenta- 
tion Minister by the law of the 28th of November, 1881, but 
afterwards became once more dependent upon the Minister 
of Justice in virtue of a decree ; and now continues to be 
governed in conformity with the law dated the 15th of 
February, 1883, and with the regulations of the 15th of May 
of the same year. The courses established in the National 
School of Agriculture are those of agricultural engineer 
and of the medical veterinary surgeon, and in order to be 



374 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

enrolled as a proprietary in either of them, a pupil must 
have passed successfully in the examination of the different 
branches of primary instruction. The preparatory studies 
for the said professions are gone through at the National 
Preparatory School. The professional studies for the 
career of agricultural engineer are the following : Arith- 
metic, algebra, plane geometry, and in space, rectilinear 
and spherical trigonometry; analytical geometry, infinitesi- 
mal calculus, descriptive geometry, analytical and applied 
mechanics, topography and water-measurement, cosmog- 
raphy and geography, especially that of Mexico, physics 
and meteorology, general chemistry with its application to 
agriculture, agricultural technology, botany, zoology, 
geology and hydrotogy, agronomy and philotechnics, 
drainage and irrigation, farm building, zootecny; ac- 
counts, management, economy and country legislation; 
Spanish, Greek and Latin roots, French, English and 
elements of German ; natural landscape, topographical, 
machine and architectural drawing, the practice of them. 
The studies likewise comprise microbiology, political 
economy and logic as is laid down in the circular of the 
22d of March and decrees of the 25th of May and 1st of 
June respectively, this last subject being obligatory for the 
courses of an agricultural engineer and a medical veteri- 
nary surgeon. 

The following studies have to be gone through by 
the medical veterinary surgeon : Arithmetic, algebra, plane 
geometry and in space, physics and meteorology, general 
chemistry, botany, zoology, geology, comparative, general 
and descriptive anatomy, exterior of domestic animals, 
farriery, veterinary physiology, general pathology, exter- 
nal pathology, surgery, internal pathology, midwifery, 
hygiene, pathological anatomy, therapeutics, zootecny, 
legal medicine and veterinary legislation, Spanish, 
Greek and Latin roots, French, English, elements of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 375 

German, natural, anatomical and landscape drawing, clinics 
and practice. Those subjects are also studied which are 
laid down in the decrees previously mentioned of the year 
1886. 

In the work-schools the predominant feature is practice 
aided by the elementary theoretical studies of arithmetic, 
some knowledge of algebra, geometry and trigonometry 
with their applications to the measurement of lines, surfaces 
and solids; elements of mechanics with their application to 
agricultural machinery, elements of physics, meteorology, 
and chemistry elements of zootecny, of agronom}' - and 
philotechnics, accounts, farm management and economy; 
Spanish, French, and the native idioms of places, natural 
landscape and linear drawing. 

With regard to the enrollment of proprietary and su- 
pernumerary pupils, the issuing of professional titles, 
diplomas, certificates of ability, and pensions the same 
rules are laid down as those for the National School of 
Engineers. The total number of pupils is 117 of whom 91 
are destined for the career of agricultural engineers, 15 
for that of veterinary surgeons and 11 who are devoting 
themselves to various subjects. 

The meteorological observatory of the establishment is 
endowed with the necessary instruments and apparatus for 
the practical study of astronomy and the observations which 
are made therein are sent every month to the Central 
Observatory through the Fomentation Secretary. The 
statutes of this school have been lately reformed. 

HIGHER SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND ADMINISTRATION. 

This school was inaugurated in the year 1868 in compli- 
ance with the organizing law of Public Instruction in the 
Federal District, dated the 2d of December, 1867, and 
which ordered its establishment. The school occupies a 



376 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

portion of the old hospital of Terceros, situated in San 
Andres street, between CondesaLane and Sta. Isabel street. 
This building, which was completed on the 7th of May, 
1756, at the expense of the members of the third order of 
S. Francisco, was confiscated in 1861 by virtue of the laws 
of the Reform and bought afterwards by the Government 
from the holder for the sum of $75,000. The establish- 
ment is at present ruled by the law of the 15th of May, 
1869, reforming the organization of Public Instruction and 
which has beeu already mentioned. This law was issued by 
the President, authorized by the Congress, on the 14th of 
January, 1869. The school is also governed by the regula- 
tions relating to it and approved of on the 27th of August, 
1887. 

The rolls were opened on the 15th of December. The 
pupils who entered their names up to the 31st of the same 
month are considered as making up its complement ; those 
who inscribed themselves after that date are regarded as 
supernumeraries. In order to be enrolled it is required 
that the pupil should be at least 14 years of age, that he 
should have finished his primary education, and if a minor, 
that he should be presented by his father or guardian, who 
shall also sign the enrollment along with the pupil. The 
course of studies is as follows: Arithmetic and commercial 
correspondence, fiscal accounts, book-keeping, commercial 
geography, political economy, theory of credit, law of 
nations, diplomatic correspondence and customs, commer- 
cial consular and maritime laws, administrative law, con- 
stitutional law, practical knowledge of national and foreign 
wealth, chemistry as applied to commerce, commercial 
hand-writing, general history and the special history of 
Mexico, statistics and history of commerce, financial, bank- 
ing and exchange operations, Spanish grammar, French, 
English and German. The library of the school contains 
4,800 volumes. The number of pupils enrolled in this pres- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 377 

ent year of 1893 is 275, the average attendance being 211. 
The school enjoys an annual assignment of $28,643.20. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR MEN. 

The school occupies a beautiful building which is a com- 
plete contrast to the old and ruined convent of San Lorenzo. 
In order to be enrolled as a pupil it is sufficient to be in- 
scribed as such in the school secretaryship, to know how to 
read and write and to be at least 13 years of age. To be a 
free pupil it is only necessary to have finished the primary 
instruction and to have obtained in its examination and in 
its last course at least the qualifications of Good in all the 
subjects which the said course embraces. The classes which 
are given in the establishment are the following: Spanish 
grammar, geography of the country, writing, arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, rectilinear trigonometry, model and 
ornametal drawing, lineal and machine drawing, modeled 
drawing and carving, physics and some knowledge of 
mechanics, general chemistry and as applied to the arts, 
French, English, music and gymnastics. In 1886 a chair 
was established for constitutional law and political economy. 

The workshops set up in the school are: Smithy and 
lock-smith's shop, carpentry and cabinet-making shops, 
turners' shop for solids and hollow articles, mechanical 
arts, pottery, stone-cutters' works, galvanizing works, 
typography and lithography, photography, photopography 
and foundry. 

The Practicing School for Machinists, established by de- 
cree on the 18th of December, 1890, in the National School 
of Engineers was transferred to the School of Arts and Pro- 
fessions for Men in conformity with a decree dated the 16th 
of March, 1892. The studies comprised in its course are: 
Arithmetic, algebra, as far as equations of the first grade ; 
elementary geometry, plane trigonometry, elements of 



378 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

physics, elements of mechanics, practical knowledge of the 
constructing materials used in machines and of the tools, etc., 
employed in putting together and taking asunder machines; 
practical and detailed knowledge of steam engines, and 
especially of the locomotives whose systems are preferred 
on account of certain advantages, knowledge of the practi- 
cal working and management of locomotives and of steam 
engines in general, knowledge of- the regulations and laws 
relating to the running of trains on the railways, lineal and 
machine drawing, some knowledge of French and English, 
practice in railway works, overseeing, foundries and indus- 
trial establishments. 

The school assigns fifty fellowships of which each State 
of the Republic has a right to one. According as the school 
has put its pupils through a complete course they have 
taken positions at the directors and assistants in the differ- 
ent workshops and thus their progress gets rewarded. The 
number of pupils for the year 1893 was about 338, includ- 
ing those who are pursuing the course of machine en- 
gineers. The Government sustains the institution with a 
yearly sum of $44,364.55. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR WOMEN. 

This school was founded on the 16th of November, 1871, 
as a means of moralizing the people, to diffuse illustration 
and open a wider field for the destitute class, who, through 
this establishment, would find better resources for the sub- 
sistence of life and improvement of social conditions. 

Unfortunately, the results obtained have not corres- 
ponded entirely to the beneficient thought which caused its 
foundation, for nearly all the students belong to the middle 
class of society, and the destitute appear to continue re- 
signed to remain in ignorance. 

The maiden pupils receive the theoretic, artistic and 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 379 

technical instruction necessary for the exercise of some art 
appropriate for women, as also commercial instruction in a 
sufficient measure to open for them the road to employment 
in commerce, or in any industrial business, taking charge 
of the accounts. 

The instruction is general and technical, the first being 
comprised of Spanish, arithmetic, book-keeping, notions 
about civism and science, English, writing and drawing; the 
second one, painting, modes, embroidery, making of 
artificial flowers, lace-making, tapestry, gilding and book- 
keeping. 

The pupils are either boarders in the establishment, or 
supernumeraries. For the former ones it is obligatory to 
assist at all the classes of general instruction, and to dedi- 
cate themselves to the practice of the workshop that they 
choose, and they can, if they feel so disposed, attend the 
class of music. The course of instruction comprises four 
years. The last one is dedicated to the perfection in those 
branches taught during the three first years. 

The supernumerary pupils are only allowed to assist at 
the workshops they may choose, at the class of drawing, 
and, by permission of the director, at the class of music. 
The course of instruction last two years or more, if the 
teacher in the workshop thinks it necessary to employ more 
time. 

In order to be a regular boarding pupil, it is necessary 
to be presented, if of minority, by the person who has care 
of the pupil; be, at least, 13 years of age and not older 
than 25; to be vaccinated and not have any contagious 
disease; to accredit her moral conduct to the satisfaction 
of the director ; to be able to read and write orthograph- 
ically, and to know the four rules of arithmetic, which 
must be verified in the examination for admission. 

The supernumerary pupils must have the same requisites 
as required of the boarders, but the limit of age is extended 



380 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

to 30 years, and the examination is confined to reading and 
writing only. 

The number of regular boarders must not exceed 60, and 
that of supernumeraries 80. The programme of studies for 
this school was, during considerable time, burdened with 
incongruous matters that greatly embarrassed the industrial 
instruction proper, as required by the idea that presided at 
its creation. 

The Department of Justice suppressed said class in 1892, 
and dedicated the activity of the school to results more to 
the point and more practical. 

At the initiative of Mr. Zamacona, director of the estab- 
lishment, the department is actually occupied in studying 
the reformation of the instruction, in conformity with the 
advances made in our epoch on the field of industries, hav- 
ing in view, to a certain extent, the women working at 
manual labor that consumes their time, injures their health 
in many cases, and prevents them from receiving culture 
mentally and morally. 

A trial has therefore been made to facilitate women of 
home works of modern industries, using to this end machines 
of easy management and small cost, as can be afforded by 
the actual progress in mechanics. 

CORRECTIONAL SCHOOL OF TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. 

This School was founded in the year 1881, being located 
in the edifice formerly known as St. Peter and St. Paul's 
College. To its custody are assigned for instruction, 
young people under eighteen years of age, upon when 
gubernative sentences have been passed, or who have been 
taken in charge by request of their parents or guardians 
for the purpose of correcting their evil tendencies and 
teaching them habits of order and industry. The institu- 
tion is of a military character in its organization, and its 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 381 

correctional corps consists of a body known as the " Work- 
ing Battalion." The scholars who distinguish themselves 
by their good behavior, are entitled to premiums or marks 
of distinction, and continue to advance to the rank of cap- 
tain, 1st or 2d sergeant, enjoying the prerogatives of their 
class. 

The literary instruction which they receive is of the most 
modern character, and is given the pupils for one or two 
hours daily. For the elementary and industrial instruction 
there are classes and workshops under the direction of 
competent skilled mechanics and workmen. The educa- 
tion of the pupils is based upon primary and second 
primary classes, and they may pursue other studies, or 
enter the shops. 

There are machine shops, iron working, brass-finishing, 
carpentry, tailoring and shoe shops. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 

On the 29th of August, 1781, D. Fernando Jose 
Mangino who was at that time Superintendent of the 
Mexican Mint, proposed the establishment of this institu- 
tion, the project being approved of in September by the 
Viceroy. A preparatory committee charged with the duty 
of organizing and establishing the new institution was ap- 
pointed in the October following. On the fifth of Novem- 
ber, 1781, it was found possible to open the drawing classes 
provisionally by a fund of $22,380; the proceeds ©f private 
donations and of annual subscriptions imposed upon the min- 
ing tribunals, the Consulate and cities of Mexico, Veracruz, 
Queretaro, San Miguel el Grande, Cordoba, and Orizaba 
and which the committee had to collect. The expediency 
and advisability of the foundation of the academy being 
agreed upon, Charles III issued a decree for its erection on 
the 25th of December, 1783, calling it " St. Charles of New 



382 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Spain," and granting it an allowance of $13,000 yearly. 
The statutes were authorized by a royal decree of the 18th 
of November, 1784, and the academy was opened on the 
4th of November, 1785, in the Mint. In 1791 the academy 
was removed to the old hospital of the " Love of God," 
which was founded in 1541 and closed on the 1st of July, 
1788. About $13,000 were then spent on works of art, 
instruments for the study of agriculture and mathematics 
and consulting works and received the collection of gypsum 
presented by Charles III and brought to Mexico during the 
same year by Professors D. Manuel Tolsa and D. Rafael 
Jimeno. The collection is valued at $40,000. In 1825 
the directing committee bought the building and neighbor- 
ing houses which the School at present occupies, for the 
sum of $76,000. Since 1861 the establishment is directly 
dependent on the Government of the Union and under the 
charge of a committee of professors and a director named 
from among themselves. The plan of studies drawn up in 
1868 gave it the name by which it is at present known, 
namely, the National School of Fine Arts. 

The gallery of paintings of the old Mexican school con- 
tains invaluable treasures: the works of Echanove, Juarez, 
Rodriguez, Arteaga, Cabrera and others. In the gallery 
of European paintings are found works of Murillo, Sur- 
baran, Alonzo Cano, Leonardo Vinci and other masters. 
Among the landscapes are biblical paintings by Marko 
de Landesio and his disciples ; the paintings of the modern 
Mexican school are equally rich and varied. The sculpture 
galleries contain a collection of works executed by cele- 
brated sculptors and many originals in plaster and marble 
of the modern Mexican school. Equally magnificent are 
the galleries of line and hollow engraving and of archi- 
tecture. 

The studies which are gone through in the school are 
divided into preparatory and special, the latter for the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 383 

courses of painting, sculpture, ornamental modeling, line 
wood and hollow engraving. Some of the first are taught 
in the National Preparatory School. According to the 
present programme the preparatory studies are completed 
in ten years, the last two of which are devoted exclusively 
to the special studies whose first year corresponds with the 
fifth of the preparatory ones. The subjects embraced by 
these studies are the following: Spanish, French, figure 
drawing; ornamental drawing, copied from prints; mathe- 
matics (arithmetic, algebra and elementary geometry) ; 
drawing copied from the prints ; perspective drawing taken 
from plaster ; landscape drawing, drawing from classic 
orders including their theory; Italian, anatomy of forms, 
geography, drawing from nature, general and national 
history, natural history and history of the fine arts. 

Branch of Painting. Study of light and shade, classic 
orders, drawing of the nude, copying of pictures, general 
history, natural history, studies painted from nature, history 
of the fine arts. 

Landscape Painting. Elements of coloring, studies 
drawn from nature, landscape and figure drawings, classic 
orders of architectural drawings, anatomy, paintings of the 
natural, of landscapes and of figures, general history, com- 
position, history of the fine arts and the aesthetics of the 
fine arts. 

Branch of Sculpture. Study of the old and of the natural, 
composition, anatomy, general history, the aesthetics of the 
fine arts and the execution of studies in marble and metal. 

Branch of Modeled Ornamental. Copies of ornamentals, 
drawing of plaster casts, anatomy, classic orders, studies 
of still nature, drawing of the natural, history, composi- 
tion of ornamentals of every style, history of the fine 
arts, practice in stucco, alabaster, marble and woods, the 
Aesthetics of the fine arts. 

Branch of Line Engraving. Disposition of burine and 



384 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

etching lines, preparation of backgrounds, field and drap- 
ery, anatomy, classic orders, drawing of the natural, and 
pen sketching, burine and etched copies, history, engrav- 
ing of figures burine and etched, drawing from painted 
pictures and from nature, composition, history of the fine 
arts. 

Branch of Hollow Engraving . Studies of heads and of 
modeled figures, and engravings taken from the old and 
from prints, anatomy, classic orders, historical elements of 
heraldry; letter engravings, modeled ornaments. Prin- 
ciples of history and of the fine arts ; historical medals of 
every kind; drawing, composition of the same, drawing of 
the nude. 

Branch of Architecture. For this course, which was es- 
tablished in 1867, the pupils must study the following in the 
National Preparatory School: Mathematics, French, En- 
glish, physics, cosmography, chemistry, geography and 
history ; and in the School of Fine Arts these, namely, 
classic orders and drawing representing the orders of every 
style, composition of the ornamental copied from plaster or 
the natural, infinitesimal calculus, copying monuments of 
different styles taken from prints or from the natural, 
rational mechanics, descriptive geometry, elements of 
mineralogy and geology, mechanics as applied to building, 
stereotomy, perspective, history of the fine arts, practical 
topography, composition, legal architecture, estimates and 
surveying. 

There are established in the schools night classes of 
industrial drawing both ornamental and lineal. These are 
meant especially for artisans and are suited to the particular 
character of the various employments of the pupils. 

Artists and amateurs who do not belong to the establish- 
ment may go to the school during the study hours and 
freely copy the works which it contains. This freedom 
allowed for many years by the school was authorized by 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 385 

i 

the Secretary of Justice in a resolution of the 14th of 
December, 1883. 

Since the year 1849 the school has celebrated periodical 
exhibitions with the object of making known the advances 
made by its pupils. 

On the 5th of November, 1881, it celebrated the 20th 
exhibition and at the same time the first Centenary of the 
foundation of the establishment. Later on were held those 
of 1886. 

The galleries of the school are open to the public every 
Sunday from nine o'clock in the morning till one o'clock 
in the afternoon, subject to the regulations of the 28th of 
February, 1884. 

By a decree of the 21st of October, 1879, there were 
established in the school annual and biennial examinations 
to stimulate and advance the pupils who have arrived at 
the higher studies of composition in the branches of archi- 
tecture, sculpture, drawing of figures and ornamentals, 
figures and landscape painting, engraving of medals and of 
prints. These examinations are obligatory upon the matric- 
ulated and mining pupils and consists of two parts, the 
formation of a design or idea of the work and of the com- 
plete working out of the design. 

The annual examinations or competitions form part of 
the pupils' studies and the works presented in these com- 
petitions belong to their authors ; the School preserves the 
designs of those who have obtained the highest qualifica- 
tion. Into the bienniel competitions only those pupils 
who are most advanced in composition are admitted. 

The works presented belong to their authors except those 
which have won prizes. These remain for the benefit of 
the school whilst their owners receive a gratification not 
exceeding $400, the amount being fixed by the proper 
commission. For these examinations there are especially 
established a prize and an accessit in every year of the 

25 



386 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

above mentioned branches. These consist, the first, of a 
bronze medal and the second, of a diploma. 

The staff of professors in the establishment is both 
complete and competent, and many young men who make 
good progress are advanced to take charge of the teaching 
in the institutes of various States. The School possesses a 
select library with more than 2,000 volumes in which the 
pupils may gain a knowledge of the great monuments 
and all the works ancient and modern on the different 
subjects. 

The total number of pupils enrolled in the School in the 
year 1893 was 902, of whom 843 are men and 59 women. 
The establishment enjoys on the part of the Federal Gov- 
ernment an annual assignation of $40,045.10 

It can be said that among the Spanish-American nations 
Mexico is the only one which has founded a national school 
of fine arts. 



NATIONAL CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC. 

This establishment has for its object the teaching, the 
cultivation and the progress of the musical art and has 
succeeded in filling up a want felt by a country where so 
much musical talent abounds. 

It was founded in the year 1866, by persons belonging 
to the Directing Committee of the Mexican Philharmonic 
Society. 

In the beginning the Conservatory was maintained by 
donations from its members and a subvention on the part 
of the Government, until it was nationalized, which was 
done by decree on the 13th of January, 1877, whilst the 
Philharmonic Society was indemnified for all its expenses, 
including $17,761, which the small theater of the Conserv- 
atory cost and which had been inaugurated on the 28th of 
January, 1874. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 387 

The estimates of disbursements for the official year 

1882 to 1883 reduced the special allowance of the estab- 
lishment to $7,000. It was determined to withdraw from 
the new plan of studies all subjects that were foreign to 
the teaching of music and which were included in the 
previous programme, as for instance writing, Spanish gram- 
mar and geography and empowered the President to reor- 
ganize the establishment with a sum of $25,000. The 
project of reorganization was placed in the hands of Mr. 
Alfredo Bablot, who was appointed director of the Conserv- 
atory on the 1st of July, 1882. It was presented on the 
30th of November, of the same year; and although the new 
plan of studies with all the other reforms ought to have 
been inaugurated at the beginning of the college year of 

1883 in accordance with the regulation of the 27th of July, 
1882, it was found impossible to carry them into effect 
except in their essential particulars as the estimated 
amount of money was not sufficient for the purpose and 
the establishment was only provisionally organized in the 
terms laid down by the decree of the 7th of January, 1883. 

The teaching in the Conservatory is free and embraces, 
according to the above-mentioned project of Mr. Bablot, 
the following studies : Preparatories, singing, instrumental, 
higher technical, united, finishing and auxiliary. 

The preparatory studies are: Elements of musical theory 
and preliminary knowledge of harmony, the solfa written, 
spoken and sung individually and collectively, elementary 
theory and harmony. The singing studies are choral sing- 
ing with voices only (orphean), the choir with accom- 
paniment, higher solos (monody) and the notes they 
comprise, the mechanism theory and expression. The 
instrumental are the piano, obligatory upon those who wish 
to become organists, improvisation, and higher technical 
studies, the harp, the organ, bow instruments, wind and 
percussion instruments. 



388 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The higher technical studies consist of harmony both 
theoretical and practical, composition, accompaniment, 
esthetics comprising the history of music and the biog- 
raphies of its celebrated men, acoustics and phonography. 
The united studies are hall music, symphony, both together 
and with instruments, united music, vocal and instrumental, 
which is taught at the same time as classic music and 
symphony. The auxiliary studies are the writing of 
music, which embraces the practical writing of the notes, 
and as a compliment of this lithographical and metal en- 
graving, the French and Italian languages. The finishing 
studies consist of the completion of the musical education 
begun in the previous courses. 

The teaching therefore comprises the following subjects: 
Elements of musical theory and preliminary knowledge of 
harmony; solfa; choral singing with voices only, choir 
singing with accompaniment; choral singing and vocali- 
zation, knowledge of anatomy, physiology and the hygiene 
of vocal organs, lyrical declamation,, piano, harp, organ 
harmony and its accessories ; violin, viola, violoncello, 
bass violin, flute and like instruments, hautboy and English 
horn, clarionette, euphonium and similar instruments; saxo- 
phone, flageolet, bassoon and trombone, trumpet, cornet, 
harmonious trumpet, bugles, sax-horns and tube, trom- 
bones and ophicleide instruments of the system of Sax, 
their like and ones derived from them. Percussion instru- 
ments, harmony, composition, accompaniment, musical 
aesthetics, both theoretical and applied, general history of 
music and the biographies of its great men. Acoustics 
and phonography. Hall fanfar music, religious music ; 
symphony music, harmony and mixed music, music with 
voices and instruments. Musical writing and the French 
and Italian languages. This plan of studies has been in 
force, in the establishment since 1883 and has produced 
admirable results, although it has never been definitely 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 389 

sanctioned but its observation merely authorized as a 
trial. 

The pupils of the Conservatory are either numerary, 
supernumerary or hearers. The numeraries are those who 
undertake to follow the courses of the establishment in 
the strict order which the plan of studies lays down. The 
supernumeraries are enrolled as numeraries at the proper 
time and in accordance with the regulations and are those 
who only study one or other of the branches of the teach- 
ins: without following their strict order of studies. In 
order to be admitted it is necessary besides having the 
certificate required for any enrollment, to show by docu- 
mentary evidence or by means of an examination that the 
candidates have gone successfully through the studies prior 
to the course they are entering. The hearers are pupils 
who attend the lessons of any branch without enrolling 
themselves as numeraries or supernumeraries ; they are not 
obliged to show their knowledge of any lesson nor to be 
examined ; but they must submit to the rules and discipline 
of the establishment. 

To be admitted as a numerary pupil in the first year of 
preparatory studies the candidate has to present the follow- 
ing papers : A certificate of good ;conduct, of knowledge 
of reading and writing and the four rules of arithmetic, or 
otherwise to undergo an examination in them ; a certificate 
of vaccination and one showing that he does not suffer 
from any contagious disease, and proof that his age is not 
less than eight years. 

As soon as the Conservatory was organized it constituted 
its orchestra and from it have come forth the larger part 
of the professionals who compose the orchestras of the 
theaters of the capital, many of the most distinguished 
players in the military bands and some of their directors. 

In order to enter the orchestra of the Conservatory, the 
instrumentalists must have among other qualifications, a good 



390 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

conduct, punctual attendance of the courses, the highest 
qualifications in the yearly examinations, the gift of read- 
ing music at first sight, fineness of execution and sufficient 
instrumental ability, and must besides be proposed by the 
professor of the special branch in which he desires to enter 
and undergo a special examination. If the pupil fulfills 
these conditions he is admitted to the orchestra and his ap- 
pointment is given him in the form of a special diploma, 
which is also an honorary title and a certificate of ability to 
enter any symphonic corporation. 

Mr. Bablot on the 1st of September, 1886, advised with 
the Secretaryship of Justice about the creation of a " Society 
of Conservatory Concerts " which should be formed of the 
professors of the establishment and their solo pupils both in- 
strumental and singing, with the object of giving every year 
a series of grand public and official concerts, benefit ones 
and others for payment, for his account and risk. The pro- 
ceeds of these to be divided among the players and the mu- 
tual association which they might form. The Secretaryship 
on the 16th of July, 1887, approved of the basis laid down, 
seeing that the association in its nature and objects tended to 
improve and stimulate its members, and co-operated in the 
advancement of the Conservatory. The first series of con- 
certs was given in the year 1888. 

The establishment, beingorganizedon so complete a plan of 
studies and with a staff of professors of well-known artistic 
reputation and receiving from the Government a yearly sum 
of more than $45,000 maintains itself in the high position 
which the present civilization of Mexico demands. The 
number of persons being educated in the Conservatory in 
1892 was 1,656, of whom 617 were women and 1,039 men. 

MILITARY COLLEGE. 

This institution, undoubtedly the most important belong- 
ing to the army, dates from the year 1824, during the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 391 

presidency of Mr. Guadalupe Victoria. It was intended 
to found one in 1829 in imitation of similar establishments 
in Europe and the United States, but it was found impossi- 
ble to fully equip it until the year 1838. At first the 
college was established in San Carlos de Perote ; afterwards 
it was translated to the capital of the Republic and 
installed in the Bethlemite convent, forming part of the 
Sapper Brigade. 

In 1833 the young institution passed to the building of 
San Lucas, at present the Military Hospital, and there it 
remained till 1843, when, by the orders of the Government, 
it again changed tc the castle of Chapultepec. After the 
American invasion, in 1,848, the establishment opened its 
classes in the Rastrillo barracks and the building of San 
Lucas. From thence it was transplanted in 1869 to the old 
archepiscopal residence of Tacubaya, where it stayed till 
1881, when it once more occupied the palace of Chapultepec 
and where it still is. 

In the Military College all youths who intend to devote 
themselves to a military life receive instructions and are 
drilled in the various exercises of the army. Those also 
who aspire to enter the national navy go through their 
preparatory studies in the same institution. 

The direction of the studies, the enforcing of the punctual 
observance of the rules and regulations, as well as all 
instructions referring to the establishment are in the hands 
of the Director of the College, who also exercises the powers 
which the general ordinance appoints to colonels, with 
bodily authority. 

The Subdirector has charge of the conduct and discipline 
of the members of the establishment and of the particulars 
of the service and its administration. 

The College is equipped with a very competent staff of 
professors, thirty-five in number, with ten masters, four 



392 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

assistant-masters and three preparatory ones for physics, 
chemistry and natural history. 

Professors. 

In order to obtain the position of professor in the College 
it is necessary to know thoroughly the subject to be taught, 
both theoretically and practically. 

To be a professor one must also have a title in some 
science or at least he must know outside of the course he 
intends to teach and in such a way as to be able to examine 
in them, two of the subjects which form part of the teach- 
ing in the establishment. Upon the shoulders of the pro- 
fessors is laid the duty of teaching both theoretically and 
practically as well as that, of watching over the preserva- 
tion of discipline and the conduct of their pupils. They 
compose the text* of their respective courses of teaching 
subject to the approbation of the faculty body. The civil 
prof essors hold within the college the ranks of 1st captains, 
whilst the military professors maintain the rank which 
rightfully belongs to them in the army. Those who dur- 
ing three months fail to fill their chairs on three days with- 
out a reasonable excuse are referred by the board of 
directors to the Secretary of War for immediate dismissal. 

The preparatory and assistant masters take, the places of 
the professors in cases of absence or sickness and with the 
same authority as those they represent had. 

When the professors, preparatory masters, masters, and 
assistant masters have efficiently fulfilled their duties with- 
out being on furlough for more than one month in every 
five years, and when they have composed the texts of their 
respective classes and these texts have been adopted for at 
least three years, then they have the right to retire on pen- 
sion according to the instructions of the general army 
ordinance. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 393 



Pupils. 



In order to be a pupil it is necessary, 1st. To be a Mexican 
either by birth or naturalization; to be from 16 to 18 years 
of age ; not to have been expelled from any public school 
or college and to have passed an examination held in the 
same, showing a sufficient knowledge of arithmetic, alge- 
bra, Spanish and of first year's French in accordance with 
the programme of entrance. 2d. To have been vaccinated, 
to have the necessary bodily fitness for the army certified 
to by the college medical officer who will base his judgment 
on the list of causes which exempt from entrance into the 

army. 

The applicant for entrance should address his applica- 
tion in his own handwriting to the Secretary of War and 
Navy in the months of October or November of each year. 
In his letter he should give his name, place of birth and age 
and at the top a declaration from his father or guardian 
certifying under the father's or guardian's signature that 
he agrees to his sou's or ward's entering the army. Along- 
with the application he should send a copy of his baptismal 
register as well as certificates of his conduct, studies and 
diligence. Soldiers' sons can enter as pupils from the age 
of 15 and they should also send with their application in 
addition to the documents already mentioned, a copy of the 
certificate of their father's last situation. Those youths 
can also enter the institution as pupils who are from 18 to 
20 years of age if they are acquainted with the non-military 
sciences taught during the first three study years at the col- 
lege. They receive too those who have not this knowledge ; 
but such pupils have not the right to the faculty course of 
studies and are merely destined for the infantry or cavalry 
and only pursue the studies which are meant for either an 
infantry-man or a cavalry-man. The aspirants on being 
affiliated to the college have their duties imposed on them 



394 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

by the superior in accordance with the rule and general 
ordinance of the army. It is understood of course that 
they enter the army from the day on which their place is 
assigned them in the college, and that at all times, what- 
ever may be the state of their studies, they are obliged to 
serve as officers in the army if the Supreme Government so 
directs. 

Those who are intended for the infantry and cavalry are 
under the obligation of serving as officers at least three years 
after finishing their respective studies. Those who devote 
themselves to a faculty career must serve within five years 
and those who adopt the navy as their profession pass into 
the naval school on finishing their studies. . 

Pupils who pass successfully in the subjects marked by 
the regulations for any branch of the army become lieuten- 
ants in the permanent militia or first midshipmen in the 
national navy if destined for the sea, whilst those who have 
successfully gone through their first two years of study 
become sub-lieutenants of infantry or cavalry. 

In order to become an officer in the army it is essential 
to be at least nineteen years of age according to the General 
Ordinance. 

The pupils are fed and clothed in the establishment and 
are furnished with books, drawing and writing materials 
and are obliged, when a review is held, to show all the 
arms, accoutrements, clothes and school materials which 
have been supplied to them. The text-books also in which 
they have passed are given to them and remain their own 
property to the end of every college year in order that 
they may be able to consult them and refer to them as 
they advance in their studies. They can take with them 
when going into the army their clothes for their own use. 

The subjects taught in the establishment for the differ- 
ent branches of the army and distributed over the various 
years as follows, are these: 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 395 

Studies of Infantry and Cavalry Officers. 

First Year. Rules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
the duties of the Adjutant (aid-de-camp) including general 
orders, military and general honors; plane geometry, in 
space and rectilinear trigonometry. French, landscape 
drawing, gymnastics and swimming. 

Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers and practice 
of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance sec- 
ond year — the whole of the third treatise and documenta- 
tion, fixed planes and military topography with the 
corresponding practice, especially in making military 
journeys and reading charts, universal geography and 
chiefly Mexico. Topographical drawing, military accounts. 

Third Year. Ordinance third year, the whole of the 
fourth treatise which comprises the service of troops in 
the field. Military legislation and laws of war. Transi- 
tory fortification and encamping. Universal history and 
especially that of Mexico, fencing and pistol-shooting first 
year, military hygiene and veterinary medicine. 



Studies of Artillery Officers. 

First Year. Rules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
and funeral honors, plane geometry in space and rectilinear 
trigonometry. French, landscape drawing, gymnastics and 
swimming. 

Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers with practice 
of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance 
second year, the whole of the third treatise and documen- 
tation. English first year, universal geography and espe- 



396 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

daily Mexico ; analytical geometry, infinitesimal calculus; 
first year water-colored geometrical drawing. 

Third Year. Transitory fortification and encamping. 
Ordinance third year, the whole of the fourth treatise which 
comprises the service of troops in the field ; higher algebra 
and second year of analytical geometry and of infinitesimal 
calculus ; universal history and especially that of Mexico ; 
delineated drawing. English second year. 

Fourth Year. Permanent fortification and military 
bridges, military legislation and laws of war, analytical 
'mechanics, descriptive geometry. English third year, ma- 
chine drawing first year. 

Fifth Year. Military hygiene and veterinary medicine ; 
applied mechanics, physics, machine drawing second year, 
military accounts, stereotomy. 

Sixth Year. First year of artillery, fencing and pistol- 
shooting. First year chemistry, mechanical theory of 
building, knowledge of building materials and practical 
building, topographical drawing first year. 

Seventh Year. General topography and water measure- 
ment, second year of artillery, logic and constitutional law, 
fencing and pistol-shooting second year. 

Studies of Engineers. 

First Year. Eules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
and funeral honors ; plane geometry in space and recti- 
linear trigonometry. French, landscape drawing, gymnas- 
tics and swimming. 

Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers with prac- 
tice of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance 
second year; the whole of the third treatise and documen- 
tation; analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus first 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 397 

year; universal geography and especially that of Mexico. 
English first year; water-colored geometrical drawing. 

Third Year. Transitory fortification and encamping. 
Ordinance third year, the whole of the fourth treatise 
which comprises the service of troops in the field; higher 
algebra and third year of analytical geometry and of in- 
finitesimal calculus. English second year ; universal history 
and chiefly that of Mexico ; delineated drawing. 

Fourth Year. Permanent fortification and military 
bridges. Military legislation and laws of war, analytical 
mechanics, physics. English third year ; military hygiene 
and veterinary medicine. 

Fifth Year. Military accounts, fencing and pistol-shoot- 
ing. First year descriptive geometry, perspective and 
shading, spherical trigonometry, cosmography and theory 
of errors; topographical drawing first year. 

Sixth Year. First year of artillery, fencing and pistol- 
shooting. Topographical drawing second year, general 
topography, natural history, strategy and tactics. 

Seventh Year. Service of the higher States. Surveying 
and astronomy, including the theory of eclipses, logic and 
the elements of constitutional law, geographical drawing 
and charts. 

Studies of Midshipmen of the National Navy. 

First Year. Eules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties 
to those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
and funeral honors, plane geometry in space and rectilinear 
trigonometry. French landscape drawing, gymnastics and 
swimming. 

Second Year. Transitory fortification, analytical geome- 
try and infinitesimal calculus, first year ; universal geog- 
raphy and especially that of Mexico. English first year; 



398 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

delineated and water-colored drawing, military legislation 
and laws of war. 

Third Year. Fencing and pistol-shooting first year ; an- 
alytical mechanics, cosmography, universal history and 
especially that of Mexico. English second year; military 
hygiene, machine drawing. 

Fourth Year. Fixed planes and military topography with 
the corresponding practice, especially in making military 
journeys and reading charts; reckoning, navigation, nau- 
tical terms and maneuvers, fencing and pistol-shooting 
second year, physics. English third year; logic and 
the elements of constitutional law, topographical drawing 
first year. 

The teaching of applied subjects is both practical and 
theoretical. The professors therefore of physics, chem- 
istry and natural history have their cabinets well supplied 
with everything necessary. In the astronomy class prac- 
tical lessons in astronomy are given during the five middle 
months of the year. In the topography class, the pupils, 
after learning the description and management of the 
instruments, practice in the open country. 

In the infantry, cavalry and artillery classes the various 
styles of tactics are practiced. All the pupils go through 
the maneuvers and shooting practices by being divided 
among the regular army troops ; those of the artillery also 
visit the army establishments at the end of their college 
year. 

The professors of each branch give practices at the times 
of the year most convenient and when the pupils have well 
mastered the applied subjects they are studying. When 
the studies are such that their application must be made 
outside of the capital then this application is so made, and 
the pupils visit factories, workshops or other important 
institutions and this is especially done in the case of those 
studying mechanics. The exercises in shooting cannons 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 399 

and guns, the making of fortifications and practicing service 
in the field are all performed in the yearly encampments 
which are formed from the 15th to the 30th of November 
at places not more than eight leagues distant from the 
college. The pupils undertake this expedition on foot in 
marching columns and along with the regular troops who 
accompany them for the purpose. 

The course of annual lectures lasts from the 8th of Jan- 
uary till the 30th of September, and during the last seven 
days of the college year, the classes are suspended in order 
that the pupils may prepare for their examinations which 
begin on the 1st of October, and end on the 12th of 
November. 

Examinations. 

For the examination of each course, every professor 
makes his own questions. He divides the subjects, which 
make up the total of the programmes into a convenient 
number of sets, in such a way that each set contains ques- 
tions upon the beginning, the middle, and the end of the 
course. The questions are such that they can be sufficiently 
answered within the time allowed for the examination. 
The committee of judges for each subject consists of three 
persons, namely, two from the college nominated by the Di- 
rector and one invited by the Secretary of War from among 
the professors of the national schools or from the superiors 
and officers of the army. In order that the examination of 
each pupil be valid and that the qualification he obtains be 
strictly in accordance with justice, it is necessary that the 
three judges, who vote in their committee, be present and 
that they devote their whole attention to the examination. 
The passes of the pupils in all the classes are qualified by 
the series of figures from to 5 which mean respect- 
ively, failed, poor, fair, good, very good, excellent. A 



400 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

pupil passes when he is unanimously voted at least the 
figure 2 which qualifies him as fair. 

The judges cannot be objected to, and their decisions, 
when given in accordance with the regulations, are irrevo- 
cable. 

There are three prizes established for each year of 
studies. The First Prize consists of an honorary diploma 
sent by the President of the Eepublic and a set of books, 
instruments or objects which will be useful in military life; 
the Second Prize is the diploma only ; Honorable Mention 
is the third and is made at the public distribution of prizes. 
The pupils who have obtained the first prize every year 
without having to repeat any subject and who have ob- 
served an irreproachable conduct are decorated together by 
the First Magistrate of the Nation with a gold medal called 
the faculty merit medal of the first class. Those who ob- 
tain the second prize under the same conditions receive a 
silver medal called the faculty merit medal of second 
class. This decoration is given along with the diploma 
they have gained. 

Those pupils who have completed their first five years' 
studies without having failed at the examinations in any 
subject, and who have besides been well-conducted are styled 
distinguished pupils. They received their respective nom- 
inations signed by the Director of the College and wear on 
their left sleeve above the shield a saw in a square bordered 
with yellow or gold thread, according as the uniform is the 
daily or full dress one. They receive also among the papers 
of their respective companies a gratification of three dollars 
every holiday. The naming of the pupils for decorations 
and for distinctions takes place at the solemn distribution 
of prizes, which is performed on the 1st Sunday of Decem- 
ber, when the President of the Eepublic, the higher 
authorities, superiors and officers of the army are invited. 

The grades of Ensign and Midshipmen, of Corporal, 2d 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. . 401 

Sergeant and 1st Sergeant are always given as prizes for 
the most progress in studies together with a faultless, civil 
and military conduct. 

LA PAZ COLLEGE. 

This institution owes its origin to the distinguished 
Basque gentlemen, Messrs. Echeveste, Aldaco and Meave, 
who founded it in July, 1734, spending on it half a million 
of dollars. The establishment was intended as a house of 
refuge and education for poor girls and invalid Spanish 
widows. The Eector and deputies from the confraternity 
of Aranzazu, formed by natives of Biscay in Mexico, sent up 
a petition to the King of Spain in 1735, in which they in- 
formed him of the erection of the college, its object and the 
amount of money destined for its support and praying him 
at the 'same time to issue the necessary royal decree for its 
opening, and to approve the constitution and statutes drawn 
up by the confraternity. The King granted their petition 
in a decree dated the 31st of March, 1753, and in a royal 
proclamation of the seventh of September of the same year 
by which he confirmed and approved of the establishment 
of the new College as well as the constitution which had 
been drawn up. 

They were finally approved of by a royal proclamation 
on the 17th of July, 1766. This institution, which was 
merely laical, was subject to the king of Spain and to the 
staff, Eector and deputies of the Congregation of Aranzazu, 
their administration and economical government. The Col- 
lege funds began to lessen considerably during the last years 
of the colonial government, for the latter appropriated 
them by virtue of operations called consolidations and loans 
and thus occasioned the establishment a loss of $958,000. 
In later times the Mexican Government at different epochs 
has employed the funds of the College to the extent of 

26 



402 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

$30,000 but this debt, as well as the former one, has been 
acknowledged by the Government of the Republic in a law 
dated the 28th of June, 1824. The Confraternity of Aran- 
zazu was suppressed together with all other congregations 
by virtue of a law dated the 12th of June, 1879, and thus 
come to a close the immediate exercise of its patronage of 
the College which now devolved upon the Nation, and in 
place of the supreme order of the 6th of January, 1861, 
was substituted a Directory Committee composed of trust- 
worthy persons whom the Government appointed to exercise 
the duties of the suppressed confraternity regarding the in- 
stitution. A circular of the 18th of April, 1884, determined 
the reduction of the college property, but another of the 
6th of April, 1885, revoked this determination in cases 
where the said property had never been under the admin- 
istration of the Clergy. The establishment to-day is under 
the patronage of the First Magistrate of the Nation and en- 
joys from the Government an allowance of $18,000 yearly 
to improve the education of the pupils by having recourse 
to the modern progress of public instruction. In this in- 
stitution the Government has preserved the internal arrange- 
ments which were abolished in all other schools out of re- 
spect to the will of its founders as far as was compatible 
with the laws and in order not to close the doors upon young 
orphan and destitute girls and that they might there acquire 
the necessary education to gain their living honestly and to 
arm themselves against the dangers to which they are ex- 
posed by their poverty, ignorance and youth. 

There are departments for boarders and day scholars which 
are conveniently furnished with the necessaries for learning 
in the various classes which are held, such as pianos, har- 
moniums, music and the methods of the most celebrated 
masters, notable models for drawing and painting, school 
museums, both national and foreign, etc., etc. 

The regulations put in force in March, 1885, divide the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 403 

instruction into six years, during which the following sub- 
jeets are taught: Reading, writing, Spanish grammar, origin 
and progress of the Spanish language; arithmetic, both 
demonstrative and commercial, metric system, geometry, 
book-keeping, correspondence, knowledge of national and 
foreign goods, geography, history, physical sciences, 
teaching, literature, telegraphy, moral and sacred history, 
hygiene, English, French, music, natural, lineal and orna- 
mental drawing, sewing and embroidery. 

The studies being thus extended and made to satisfy the 
requirements of the age and the aspirations of the pupils, 
the establishment is now producing the results which might 
be expected of it, as is clearly proved by the vast number 
of its pupils who have obtained diplomas- as teachers of 
public and secondary instruction from the corporation of 
the capital, and the honorary medals which its staff has 
won in the universal exhibition of Philadelphia and the 
well-merited fame for superiority which it has acquired for 
teaching hand work and embroidery ( over other establish- 
ments of a like kind). The library of the college is a re- 
cent institution and has already about 600 volumes which 
have been presented by private persons and publishers of 
the capital. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND.* 

This was founded in 1870 by Mr. Ignacio Trigueros. In it 
are received, without payment of any fee, all blind children 
from eight years of age to sixteen of both sexes and who 
are notoriously poor, and besides their education they re- 
ceive shelter during the course of their studies. Those who 
do not wish to be received as pupils may attend without 
payment at the classes and lectures which are given in the 
establishment. Young blind persons whose parents are 

* See "Beneficence," page 444. 



404 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

able to pay a small monthly sum are likewise admitted 
according to a provisional arrangement and their fees go to 
the funds of the establishment. 

The classes established are : Reading, writing, Spanish 
grammar, arithmetic, geography, geometry, history of Mex- 
ico, English, French, gymnastics, music, singing and har- 
mony. The classes of music comprise the piano, clarionet, 
mandolin, flagelet, hautboy, harp, concertina, stringed and 
brass instruments. 

There are tailors shops, shoemakers shops, typography, 
book-binding, carpentry, lace-making, brush-making, to- 
bacco manufacture, making of paste-board boxes, mats, 
weaving and linking. They also do needle and crochet 
work and other hiind-works. Before the year 1878 the 
Government protected this school in an indirect way through 
the Benefit Committee, but in that year it was nationalized 
and its name appeared in the Estimates of Disbursements 
of the Federation subventioned with a sum of $17,717.35. 
To-day the allowance amounts to $22,556.70. 

THE SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES* 

Was founded in 1866 by the corporation of Mexico on the 
initiative of D. Ignacio Trigueros, who was then president 
of the body. Its first director was D. Fernando Huet, a 
foreigner and a deaf mute from birth. At first this School 
was not of a merely local character but received pupils 
from all parts of the couutry and the corporation in a circu- 
lar dated the 31st of October, 1867, urged the Governors of 
States to send to the establishment children who had the 
organic defect of being deaf-mutes and to contribute a 
convenient amount to their support. 

By a decree of the *29th of November, 1867, the School 



* See " Beneficence." 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 405 

was nationalized and since that time it has remained under 
the protection of the Government and in direct dependence 
upon the Department of the Interior. 

To enter this institution it is required that the pupil be 
from seven to twelve years of age, in good health and vac- 
cinated. He must also be subjected to an intellectual trial 
in the same establishment for a period of one month, at the 
end of which his admittance or rejection is definitely settled. 

The subjects taught comprise reading, writing, grammar, 
arithmetic, geometry, book-keeping, horticulture, drawing 
and gymnastics. There are in it lithography and tailor 
shops, and shoemaker shops as well as shops for the mak- 
ing of artificial flowers, of hats and ladies' dresses, espe- 
cially for the female pupils. The teaching employed is the 
oral system introduced by a young pupil of the school 
D. Jose Maria Marquez on his return from Europe, whether 
he was sent by the Government to study during one year 
the systems of the principal schools of this kind. 

In 1880 a saving box was put up for the pupils in order 
that in it might be placed the savings made each year out 
of the allowance of twenty dollars per month, which the 
estimates assign to each of them for expenses. Since that 
time the saving box has continued to dispense benefits to 
the pupils. For when they leave the college they are given 
their balance as a capital in order that provided with re- 
sources they may return to the bosom of their family and 
start themselves in the business they have been taught. 

The number of pupils is 34, of whom 23 are boys and 11 
girls. The establishment enjoj^s a yearly allowance of 
$19,092.25. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHAN BOYS.* 

This School and house of refuge, which was created and 
placed under the charge of a directing committee in 1877, 

* See " Beneficence," page 446. 



406 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

fell under the direction of and became dependant upon the 
Interior Department on the 1st of August, 1881. The 
Government of the District sends to it the refugees and 
it is the duty of the corporation to look after and promote 
the service of the Establishment. In it are received chil- 
dren from 10 to 12 years of age, and youths from 12 to 14 
if they are destitute, and in order that they may devote 
themselves to some business or art and these may remain 
and receive board till they are 18 years of age. 

For the admission of a pupil it is necessary that the per- 
son in whose charge he is should present a written petition 
to the Director; that the supposed destitute pupil bean 
orphan and have no inheritance or if he has a father and 
mother that the latter be poor and the former decrepit or 
unable to work and in a state of want ; that he should not 
have any disease which would render his teaching an impos- 
sibility or injure the other pupils ; that he should be vaccin- 
ated and that some person, accepted by the Director should 
guarantee the value of the clothes which may be supplied 
to the pupil. 

The primary instruction in this school in conformity 
with the regulation put in force on the 14th of July, 1884, 
is divided into elementary and higher; and the teaching 
into daily and nightly. The elementaiy instruction con- 
sists of: reading, writing, orthography, elements of Span- 
ish grammer; the four rules of arithmetic for whole 
numbers, common fractions and decimals, some knowl- 
edge of morals and politeness, elements of drawing, 
music and gymnastics. To the higher instruction belong : 
correct reading in prose and verse, correct writing, 
Spanish grammar, the higher rules of arithmetic for whole 
numbers and fractions, the metric system, some knowl- 
edge of algebra, geometry, geography and history and 
especially that of the country, duties and rights of the 
citizen and political organization of the Republic, with re- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 407 

gard to the constitution, some knowledge of hygiene, 
music and gymnastics. 

The arts and businesses taught in the School are : Litho- 
graphy, typography, book-binding, weaving, carpentry, 
tailoring, shoemaking and tinmaking. The heads of the 
work-shops are forbidden to exact from pupils work beyond 
their strength and age. As a completion of these studies 
they are also taught some knowledge of physics, chemistry, 
and mechanics as applied to the arts and the French and 
English languages. The Government in its desire to protect 
every class of establishments of instruction and benevolence, 
has introduced into this one important improvement. The 
typographical work-shops, which five j'ears ago were scarcely 
worth $500, are now with their contents and instruments 
worth more than $15,000. The dormitories have 338 beds 
and attract attention by their cleanliness, ventilation and 
good sanitary condition; the garden, gymnasium, carpen- 
ter shops and spinning shops, everything in fact is kept in 
the best state that the advancement and civilization of a 
people could demand. The Industrial Schools for Orphan 
Boys has 314 pupils. 

SCHOOL OF JURISPRUDENCE. 

This establishment was founded in conformity with the 
law governing Public Instruction of December 2, 1867. 

Shortly afterwards the Minister of Justice assigned for 
its use a large portion of the building known as the old 
convent of La Encarnacion, but it was not formally opened 
until Juue 13, 1868. 

Formerly, the study of Jurisprudence was pursued in the 
colleges of San lldefonso, San Gregorio, San Juan de 
Letran and the Seminario, this latter being maintained by 
the clergy. 

In the School of Jurisprudence the students adopt the 



408 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

professions of lawyer, notary public and business agent, 
completing their careers in six years and following the 
studies herewith mentioned: 

Roman law, civil law, philosophy of law, uncodified 
laws, legal medicine, code of civil procedure, code of 
penal procedure, military ordinances, penal law, consti- 
tutional law, political economy, international law public and 
private, forensic eloquence, commercial code and adminis- 
trative law. 

The following order of studies is pursued : First year, 
Roman and civil law. Second year, second course of 
Eoman and civil law. Third year, code of civil proceed- 
ings, uncodified laws and first course of legal medicine. 
Fourth year, code of penal proceedings, penal law, com- 
mercial code and second course of legal medicine. Fifth 
year, constitutional law, first course of political economy 
and public international law. Sixth year, administrative 
law, private international law, second course of political 
economy and forensic eloquence. 

The number of students registered the past year was 199 
and 178 supernumeraries, the former being composed of 
those who had spent the five years of preparatory study in 
the Preparatory School, which are necessary in order to 
become registered. The latter, which is composed of those 
who have complied with this requisite, may pursue the 
studies of Jurisprudence but without enjoying the right to 
pass examination. 

In addition to the respective professors, the personnel of 
the institution is composed of a director, secretary, assist- 
ant secretary, prefect, superintendent and librarian. 

NORMAL SCHOOL OF PROFESSORS. 

The Normal School of Professors of Primary Instruction 
in the City of Mexico was definitely created by decree of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 409 

December 17th, 1885, and is under the immediate charge 
of the Department of Justice and Public Instruction. The 
regulations of the 2d of October, 1886, establish the voca- 
tion of professor of primary instruction after a course of 
four years, during which they must pass on the following 
studies : Advanced reading, recitation and reminiscence 
exercises, arithmetic and algebra, geometry, rudiments of 
mechanism, of cosmography, general geography and of Mex- 
ico ; history of Mexico, rudiments of physic and meteorol- 
ogy, of general chemistr}', agriculture and industry, 
rudiments of natural history and physiology, pedagogism, 
logic, moral and methodology, scholastic organization and 
discipline and history of pedagogism, Spanish grammar 
and exercises in composition, French and English, general 
history, notions of medicine and domestic and scholastic 
hygiene, rudiments of constitutional rights and political 
economy, caligraphy and drawing, gymnastics, choral sing- 
ing, military exercises, empiric observation and practice of 
methods of teaching in the annexed schools, practice of the 
teaching in said schools and exercises in critic pedagogism. 
In order that the apprenticeship be accompanied by the 
practice, there are established two annexed Normal Schools, 
one for very small children for boys and girls from four to 
seven years of age, and the other four primary instruction 
for children from seven to fourteen years of age. 

The instructions in the former of these institutions is 
administered in three years, and in six years in the second 
one. Aspirants to teachership must assist at both plants 
counting from the first year, in order to observe the meth- 
ods of teaching, the practices, put them into execution, 
and then practice them with subjection to the pedagogic 
precepts. 

In the school for small children the following matters are 
taught : Gifts, by Frasbel, principles of lesser things, ob- 
jective calculation up to number ten, notions about the 



410 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

three kingdoms of nature, cultivation of language, 
notions of patriotic and universal history, notions of 
moral, civic instruction, choral singing, garden works, care 
of domestic animals, gymnastic plays. 

In the school of primary instruction the courses taught 
are the following : Reading, writing, arithmetic, rudiments 
of Spanish grammar, of geography, of general history of 
Mexico, notions of natural science in the form of lessons 
on matters, civic instruction, drawing, French and English, 
practical gymnastics, military exercises, choral singing. 

In order to stimulate the youth to the career of precep- 
tor, there are established in the Model Schools as many as 
eighty pensions, assigned in quality of rewards to those 
who distinguish themselves by their talent and application, 
the pupils who have obtained their respective titles having, 
moreover, the perspective of obtaining soon a position in 
the Official School of the District and Federal Territories. 

These pupils, before their admission to the character of 
pensioners and after having finished their career, promise 
to serve the Public Instruction in the District and Federal 
territories during three years. 

The Governors of the States can pension in this School 
the pupils whom they consider worthy of it, always when 
these pupils possess the conditions required for admission, 
which are: having taught for fourteen years, ability and 
recognized morality. The expenses are paid by the said 
Governors. 

When any of the teachers in the model schools are dis- 
abled owing to sickness, after a continuous service of 
five years in teaching, they shall enjoy a salary equivalent 
to one-half of that formerly earned, and shall have, as 
pension, the entire salary if they have remained thirty 
years in the service. 

The Model School of preceptors was inaugurated on the 
24th of February, 1887, and both the first professional 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 411 

course as well as the annexed schools, was opened on the 
7th of March of the following year. 

The appropriation allowed by the Government for the 
establishment is $61,612.35 per annum. 

The Model School for preceptors of primary instruction 
was created by decree of June 4th, 1888, the former Na- 
tional Secondary School for girls having been consolidated 
with it. It also immediately depends on the Department 
of Justice and Public Instruction. In accordance with the 
respective ordinance of December 21st, 1889, and its 
reforms of May 25th, 1892, the career of preceptors of 
primary instruction is made in five years, in which the 
following matters should be studied: Arithmetic and 
algebra, caligraphy, geometry, cosmography and geo- 
graphy of Mexico, physics preceded by notions of medi- 
cine, notions of chemistry, general geography, history of 
Mexico, domestic economy and the duties of women, 
natural history, preceded by the classification of the 
sciences, notions of political economy and of constitutional 
rights, theoretical hygiene, pedagogism, comprising rudi- 
ments of general and descriptive physiology, logic, moral 
and methodology, scholastic organization and discipline, 
and history of pedagogism, empiric pedagogic practice, and 
practice of teaching and pedagogic criticism in the annexed 
schools, Spanish, French and English, manual labors, 
music, drawing and gymnastic. There is, moreover in this 
school an accessory course of knowledges, useful to the 
pupils that desire to learn the following matters : Book- 
keeping, drawing from nature, horticulture and gardening 
Italian, piano, the practice of the art of cooking, aguaril 
prinling, taxidermy and muscology. 

In order to obtain the corresponding practice in the 
School, there are in the same establishment two annexed 
schools, one for the practice of boys and girls of the ages 
of four and six years, and another one for the primary 



412 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

instruction of girls from six to fourteen years of age. 
The teaching in the school of very small children is made 
in three years and comprises the same matters as are 
taught in the annexed one to that of preceptors, of which 
mention has been made. 

In the school for girls the instruction is given during six 
years, and comprises the following matters: Heading, 
writing, arithmetic, rudiments of algebra, geometry, 
Spanish grammer, geography, general history of Mexico, 
lessons of matters, morals, civic instructions, drawing, 
French, English, manual labors, knowledge of machineries 
proper to be used by females, gymnastics and choral sing- 
ing. 

There are also in the Model School for Preceptoresses pen- 
sioned pupils, which are those who, having proved during 
one year, at least, and after being examined, to have voca- 
tion and ability, are granted a pension as a stimulant to 
their talents and reward for their application. Up to 
eighty pensions can be granted. As to the requisites which 
the pensioned pupils must fill, pre-eminence enjoyed by the 
preceptress of primary instruction who have received their 
titles, and by the preceptresses of model instruction who are 
disabled by cause of some disease, or who remain in the 
service of teaching twenty years, are of the same nature as 
those already stated when treating of the Model School for 
preceptors. 

The same should be understood respecting the faculties 
which the State Governments have to pensioning pupils in 
the school naming to that effect a tutor to the satisfaction 
of the Director of the establishment. 

This School enjoys an appropriation of $70,500 per 
annum by the Government. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



LIBRARIES. 



413 



V. The establishment of libraries in Mexico dates from a 
period long before the conquest by the Spaniards in 1521. 
It is a well-known fact in history that King Itscoalt caused 
the disappearance of all the written records of his time in 
which were set down all the old precedents and customs. 
This he did in order that the people might not kuow what 
they were and might despise them on that account. 
History tells us, too, that the allied Tlaxcaitecas destroyed 
the library of the city of Texcoco on this being occupied 
by the conquerors. 

The remainder of the traditional records which survived 
these disastrous fates were almost entirely done away with 
by the spirit of fanaticism displayed by the first bishop 
Zumarraga and other religious who saw in all symbolical 
writings evidences of superstitious idolatry. Later on some 
of the historical documents which the initiated Indians had 
been able to hide were gradually 'brought to light according 
as the Crown of Castile gave more stability and a better 
o-overnment organization to its new possessions. 

On the establishment of schools, colleges, and universities 
and especially convents throughout the country, libraries 
were founded and many of the latter became famous in 
time for the variety of books which they contained, books 
treating of all the sciences, arts and languages which were 
then known and yet withal there was a great lack of books 
relating to the languages of the natives. 

When independence was won the Government set about 
the establishment of a National Library and for that purpose 
issued the decrees of the 26th of October, 1833, the 30th 
of November, 1846, and the 12th of September, 1875; but 
these praiseworthy efforts produced no tangible results at 
that time for internal revolutions and the foreign interfer- 



414 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

ence, of which the country was the victim, had previous 
calls upon the attention and resources of the administra- 
tion. In later times, on the re-establishment of the Repub- 
lic, a new decree sent forth on the 21st of November, 1867, 
ordered the formation of the Library, and for that object 
the old church of San Agustin was set apart because by 
its extent and size it fulfilled all the necessary conditions. 
For the making of the Library there were assigned to it all 
the books of the University and of the College of Santos, 
which had been already suppressed, as well as those of 
the Cathedral library, books and documents the greater 
part of which contain matters of supreme interest for the 
historian and composer. After the necessary changes had 
been made so as to suit the building for its new purpose, 
changes which cost the Government very heavy sums, the 
solemn opening of the establishment took place on the 2d 
of April, 1884. The chief hall in the National Library is 
an extensive corridor of some fifty meters long by thirteen 
wide and thirty-five high. There are on each side of it 
closing up the arches of the side-chapels and the cross- 
vaults fifteen cedar shelves, seven and a half meters high, 
each of them subdivided intoJ;hree, which are distinguished 
from one another by letters. Placed in the middle of the 
arch which is above the entrance to the building is a colossal 
statue of Time in the act of flying, with the feet upon a 
black globe which tells the hours of a clock. There are 
two large medallions one on each side of the door, with 
busts in bas-relief of President Juarez and the Minister D. 
Antonio Martinez de Castro, who were the men who issued 
and authorized respectively the decree for the establish- 
ment of the Library. Facing the doorway at the far end of 
the hall stands out upon a large bracket the Mexican eagle 
wrought in stucco and in the middle of a large window 
covered with frosted glass. Sixteen statues of 2.60 meters 
high placed upon tall pedestals complete the adornment of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 415 

the hall. These represent Walmiky, Confucius, Isais,' 
Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Virgil, St. Paul, Oregen, 
Dante, Alarcon, Copernicus, Descartes, Cuvier and Hum- 
boldt. 

The two side naves are formed into galleries divided into 
eight departments. The ante-chamber through which the 
hall is entered is paved with colored marble, whilst the 
vaulted roof is supported on each side by ten columns of cut 
stone. The building has on its north and south side a garden 
which contains a railing supported by columns, on the .tops 
of which are the busts of the following famous men of 
Mexico: Netzahualcoyotl, poet; D. Manuel Carpio, poet; 
D. Francisco Sanchez Tagle, poet; Fr. Manuel Navarrete, 
id.; D. Jose Joaquin Pesado, id.; D. Manuel Eduardo 
Gorostiza, dramatic author; D. Francisco Javier Clavijero, 
historian; D.Fernando A. Tezozomoc, id. ; D. Fernando 
A. Ixtlilxochitl, id.; D. Lucas Alaman, id.; D. Manuel 
Veytia, id.; D. Fernando Eamirez, antiquarian; Fr. 
Manuel Najera, philologer ; D. Jose B. Couto, publisher; 
D. Manuel de la Pena y Peiia, jurisconsult ; D. Carlos de 
Sigiienza y Gongora, humanist; D. Jose A. Alzate, 
naturalist; D. Leopoldo Rio de la Loza, chemist; D. 
Joaquin Cordero, man of letters ; D. Jose M. Lafragua, id. 

The National Library, which began existence with 
100,000 volumes, has now on its shelves more than 159,000. 
In addition to the National there are also the following 
libraries in the Capital: The Lawyers' School Library, 
with 14,000 volumes ; the Preparatory School Library 
which has 10,000; that of the General Record, containing 
8,000; the Engineers' School Library, having 7,000 ; that 
of the School of Agriculture, with 4,000 ; the Geographical 
and Statistical Society's Library, having also 4,000 /and 
those of the Schools of Commerce, Fine Arts, Medicine, 
the Training School for Men and the Training School for 
Women, the School of Arts and Professions for Men; that 



416 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of the National Conservatory of Music, the Museum Li- 
brary on the history of Mexico and that of the Judicial 
Record, which contain 14,538 volumes, making altogether 
220,538 volumes contained in the libraries of the city of 
Mexico which are supported by the Federal Government. 

SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY SOCIETIES. 

There are in the city of Mexico (Federal District) twenty 
societies of this kind and which have the following names •■ 
The Geographical and Statistical Society, supported by 
Federal funds ; the Natural History Society ; the Hidalgo 
Lyceum ; the Athenaeum Lyceum ; the Academy of Med- 
icine 'Society; the Academy of the Spanish Language 
Society ; the Society of the Lawyer's College ; the Engi- 
neers 7 College Society ; the Mining College Society ; the 
Agricultural College Society ; the Agricultural Veterinary 
Ignacio Alvarado Society; the Philolatric Society; the 
Pharmaceutical Society; the Ex-Mining Pupils Society; 
the Pedro Escobedo Medical Society; the Antonio Alzate 
id. ; the Medical Surgeon Francisco Montes de Oca Society ; 
the Lyceum Morelos Literary Society; the Mexican Ly- 
ceum Literary Society, and the Mexican Agricultural 
Society. 

MUSEUMS. 

The first Museum of Antiquities created in Mexico was 
established at the end of the last century, and some years 
later /in 1786, there was installed, independent of that one, 
a botanic garden under the very best possible conditions. 

In April, 1790, another museum was founded for Natural 
History, which was inaugurated and passed to the public 
on the 25th of August, of that same year. 

These establishments, notwithstanding their great impor- 
tance and the precious objects therein contained, were 




NATIONAL LIBRARY, CITY OF MEXICO. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 417 

abandoned shortly afterwards to such an extreme that at 
the close of the period of independence, it might be said 
that the first of them did not longer exist, and that the 
others found themselves in the worst state of neglect. 

In November, 1822, the Government took interest in 
re-establishing the museum of Antiquities in the edifice of 
the University, occupied to-day by the Conservatory of 
Music, and a cabinet of Natural History was attached to it, 
in addition to the conservatory of plants existing in Cha- 
pultepec at the time, which ceased entirely to exist in 1831. 

In the same year, at the instigation of the Minister of 
Interior, Sr. Lucas Alaman, both establishments were 
reformed and united under the name of The National 
Museum, the law of April 20th being the one that gave it 
legal creation and that organized it, giving it a Board of 
Directors. 

Nearly all the monuments were kept on one side of the 
court, and in two halls of the upper floor the other objects 
of Natural History and Antiquity were deposited. Among 
the latter were some of importance, namely, pictures,* of 
hieroglyphic figures referring to the emigration of Mexicans, 
several leaves of Maguey paper with writings thereon in the 
symbolic character of the Aztecs, arms, utensils, objects 
belonging to their region, idols, jewels, ornaments, etc. 

During the time that this collection was in the university 
it was successively in charge of the Presbyter Isidro Ignacio 
Icaza, — Presbyter Isidro Rafael Gondra, — Licentiate Jose 
Fernando Ramirez, who, in 1854, made a scientific arrange- 
ment in the establishment, — Licentiate Telesforo Barroso 
and Mr. D. Bilimek. 

In December, 1865, the Museum was transferred to the 
place it occupies to-day, and which was formerly the mint. 
In 1867 the sum of $500 monthly was set apart for the 
expenses of the establishment and the Director was author- 
ized to do all he thought convenient for its improvements. 

27 



418 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Since the said transfer the aforementioned Mr. Bilimek 
and Messrs. Ramon I. Alcaraz, Gumesindo Mendoza and 
Jesus Sanchez, have been Directors of the Museum, and 
Mr. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso is the present one. To 
the efforts of these gentlemen we owe the considerable 
increase of the collections in all branches that we have 
to-day. 

The establishment is divided into three departments, 
which are that of natural history, that of archeology and 
history, and the library. 

The sum of $12,000 is annually appropriated for the 
purchase of objects, preservation of the same, and for 
materials and hand works for the repair of the edifice. 
The staff of employes is as follows: Director, professor of 
archeology and history, which office is at present filled by 
the director himself, another of zoology and botany, an as- 
sistant naturalist for the former of these two last-mentioned 
branches, — librarian, — treasurer who is also secretary, — 
draughtsman and photographer, and a door-keeper and 
taxidermist. 

During the past month of January (1893) 16,795 persons, 
between natives and foreigners, visited the National 
Museum of Mexico. 

There is in the country another museum of great impor- 
tance, rich in carefully selected collections and the variety of 
its objects. This is the one formed by the Republican Com- 
mission for geographic researches. This Museum, like the 
National one, destined for the public, is established in the 
city of Tacubaya, west of the city of Mexico, and is visited 
by a great number of natives and foreigners. In another 
place of this work more information will be given bearing 
upon the establishment. 

The following museums, dedicated to the studies, are 
also established in the capital: The Museum of the 
Academy of San Carlos, the one of the Preparatory 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 419 

School, the one of Engineers, the one of the School of 
Agriculture, and the one of Medicine. 

In some States of the Republic Museums also exist, the 
principal ones being the Cabinet Museum of Natural History , 
of Monterrey (Nuevo Leon), devoted to the study of the 
public ; as well as the gallery of ancient pictures of 
Oaxaca, destined for the same purpose, the one of the 
college of the State of Coahuila in the city of Saltillo, and 
the one of the college of State of Chihuahua, both for the 
study of physics and history. 

In the Capital of the State of Guanajuato there are two 
museums, one for mineralogy in the State College, and 
the other for natural history, destined for the instruction 
of the public. In Chilpancingo (Guerrero) there is a Pub- 
lic Museum, in Guadalajara (Jalisco) the Museum of the 
School of Engineers, in Morelia (Michoacan) theMichoacan 
Museum destined for the study of archaeology, ethnology, 
history and natural sciences. In Puebla the Public Museum 
for the teaching of drawing, in Hermosillo (Sonora) the 
Museum, of the State College, and in Merida, the Yucatan 
Museum for the study of archaeology. These establish- 
ments are sustained by funds of the States and are continu- 
ally enriched by valuable acquisitions. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS. 

Many are the monuments of this kind existing throughout 
the Republic of Mexico, distributed over the Federal Dis- 
trict, also the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Morelos, Chihua- 
hua, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Queretaro, 
Guerrero, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Puebla, Tabasco, 
Yucatan, and others. The importance of these treasures of 
Mexican civilization to the penetrative mind in search of the 
solution of historical problems, has urged the Government 



420 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

to appoint, on the 9th of October, 1885, au Inspector and 
Preserver of the Archseological Monuments of the country, 
which appointment devolved upon Sr. Leopoldo Batres. 
From that date, important explanations and studies have 
been made in a more formal manner than heretofore by the 
Inspection, special attention being given to the pyramids 
and caves of San Juan Teotihuacan, forty kilometers in 
a northeastwardly direction from the city of Mexico, as 
also to the Monuments of Tula, State of Hidalgo. 

Among the studies made by the Inspection should be 
quoted the following: Two monographies, one relating to 
the celebrated stone known by the name of the " Aztec 
Calendar," "Monography of Mexican Archaeology," 
" Fourth Tlalpilli, cycle or period of thirteen years," and 
another one on top of the ruins of the pyramids of San 
Juan Teotihuacan, published the same year, and containing 
nine illustrations, seven lithographs of two tints, and two 
six-colored chromos representing these, — two fresco paint- 
ings discovered by Sr. Batres in the excavations practiced 
in the Toltec City in September, 1884 and 1886. In the 
opinion of Sr. Batres, the first fresco represents the mouth 
of hell, and the second one different tribes praying to their 
divinity for fruits and seeds. 

Another antropological work is entitled " Classification 
of the Etnic type of the Zapoteca Tribe of the State of 
Oaxaca and Acolhua of Mexico Valley." It is illustrated 
with four engravings, and was published in January, 1888, 
in the scientific Review of Paris " La Nature." Another 
similar work, bearing upon the classification of the Etnic 
type of the actual Zapoteca Indian, compared with the 
cephalic type of a sculpture of their forefathers. This 
monography contains four lithographic illustrations and 
was published in Mexico in 1888. 

A chart in which is consigned the situation of the locali- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 421 

ties where the archaeological monuments have been discov- 
ered, and the races or tribes that inhabit these localities. 
This chart was printed in the year 1888. 

A work entitled «« Civilization of some of the Different 
Tribes that inhabited the Mexican Territory." This work is 
illustrated with thirty-two plates, of which five are chromos 
of seven tints, and twenty-seven of one single hue. They 
represent sculptures, pottery, art of polichromes, decorat- 
ive arts, metallurgy, musical instruments, arms, age of the 
metals and mythology. In the exposition of these speci- 
mens search has been made for those which principally 
characterize the type of each of the tribes or races, each 
one of these forming groups ranking in accordance with the 
different civilizations as presented by the Palencana, Za- 
poteca, Tolteca, Acolhua, Mixteca, Azteca, Tarasca and 
American. 

JOURNALISM IN MEXICO. 

The Mexican press is not characterized, as is the Ameri- 
can, by the fitness of the news, nor by the fine character of 
its articles, like the French, nor does it possess the univer- 
sality of the English, or debate with the prudence of the 
Spanish; in short, the Mexican press of to-day differs 
radically from that of twenty years ago, and it may be 
aptly stated that its coloring is peculiar and characteristic. 

In that epoch journalism in Mexico recognized no inspi- 
ration other than that of belligerent politics, the rude, 
passionate debate of the opposition, saturated with the 
revolutionary spirit ; financial questions only received atten- 
tion as a pretext to attack the Government and principles 
faded from sight in the presence of personalities; internal 
politics absorbed it completely ; he who sought to impress 
his inventive and progressive ideas upon the country, was 
regarded as a species of metaphysician to whom no actual 
shape would be conceded, nor, was he hardly considered 



422 THE RICHES OF MEXICO ' 

worthy of receiving any attention whatever. The journal- 
ist of this epoch was more Mexican; but less of a journal- 
ist in the acceptation of the term which prevails to-day. 

It is undeniable that there still exist among our press, 
and occupying distinguished posts, a few glorious sediments 
of this period ; but, as a general thesis, the evolution of 
journalism is already an accomplished fact, not only in the 
Capital, but throughout the Republic. The development of 
telegraphs and railroads, which furnished life and strength 
to the news, has fructified its first element of life; and it is 
now possible to see in the capital of Mexico, newspapers 
which, like " El Universal," receive by telegraph, not only 
items regarding noteworthy occurrences, but also entire 
discourses, and not alone from the exterior, but also from 
the most distant parts of the Republic* 

The Mexican press is distinguished for the following 
general characteristics: it does not discuss party questions, 
as, in reality, none exist ; the opposition is composed of 
the enemies or those who cherish an antipathy towards 
General Diaz, but not towards the political principles which 
he professes, which are Republican, Democratic ; rare, in- 
deed, are the partizans of the legendary, monarchical and 
conservative regime. The press of Mexico gives its atten- 
tion preferentially to questions of finance and economy, and 
at times with such vehemence, as in the discussion of the 
acknowledgement of the English debt, that it almost 
deviates from the pacific field occupied by journalism. 
This, however, is exceptional; generally, the questions are 
treated with vehemence, or hostile acrimony, perhaps, but 
without abandoning the grounds of science. From this 
point of view, " El Siglo XIX," the oldest newspaper and 



* The interior service of Mexico is special, and is paid for by each 
newspaper separately, having established agents and correspondents. 
The exterior service is common and is paid for pro rata by all the press, 
with the exception of a few journals of minor importance. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 423 

"with the most glorious history in Mexico, takes precedence. 
In the opposite camp, in that of the opposition without ces- 
sation, "El Monitor Republicano " occupies the chief 
post, and both newspapers receive universal sympathy 
throughout the Republic, and are the most widely read even 
under the most critical circumstances. Connected with the 
first as editor-in-chief, is the most renowned of Mexican 
economist, that great orator, Mr. Francisco Bulnes, and 
his notable lieutenant, Mr. Carlos Diaz Dufoo ; for the 
Monitor, Mr. Enrique Chavarri (Juvenal) furnishes mat- 
ter (and his articles are the most widely read of any in 
Mexico), and Mr. Gabriel Gonzalez Mier, who although a 
young man, has gained considerable distinction in militant 
politics, and as an elegant and conscientious writer. 

Another characteristic of the journals of Mexico is their 
exhaustive manner in which they are accustomed to treat 
scientific questions, and in this respect they do not cede the 
palm of superiority to either the French or American 
journals, while they have reached the height attained by the 
English. 

What is properly called belle-lettres, may be said to be 
in a state of decadence, and the litterateurs are personified 
by a half dozen amateurs, who scarcely devote more than 
a few weak efforts, and a small amount of labor to this 
branch. The greater portion of the Sunday editions of 
the Mexican journals is devoted to the reproduction of 
articles written in Spain [regarding literature, not even 
displaying common tact in the selection of the matter; 
the same may also be said of poetry clipped from the 
Spanish newspapers. This must be understood from a 
general point of view. 

" El Universal " which, until the close of the year 1889, in 
which it commenced to figure among the " large press " 
of Mexico, had passed through a series of mishaps, has, 
thanks to the financeering ability of its distinguished di- 



424 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

rector, who is justly called the " Villetnessant of Mexico," 
succeeded in placing itself in the vanguard of Mexican 
journalism. " El Universal " furnishes the most opportune 
news, is the best conducted, the most modern in form and 
usually publishes articles of real importance. Among those 
who write for this paper may be mentioned the learned Dr. 
Porfirio Parra, chief of the Positivist School, the litterateur 
Mr. Ignacio M. Luchichi, Mr. Eduardo Noriega, the re- 
nowned poet, aided by such eminent writers as Mr. Lie. 
Victoriano Pimentel and Dr. Manuel Flores. 

" El Partido Liberal," a semi-official organ has the most 
select editorial staff among the press of Mexico, considering 
the staff as a collective body. Mr. Apolinar Castillo 
director of this newspaper, is the most universally appreci- 
ated journalist in Mexico, and enjoys great distinction in 
both social and political circles. Among the editors of 
the Partido Liberal are Mr. Manuel Gutierrez Nagera, 
Bicardo Dominguez, Angel Pola, Adalberto Esteva, and 
Anacleto Castillon, all of whom are veterans in our news- 
paper literature. 

"La Patria" was the first newspaper in Mexico to establish 
a foreign telegraph service. Its director, Mr. Lie. Ireneo 
Paz, is a politician and litterateur of great renown ; he has 
written various novels which are very much read in Mexico; 
and in the period of our political revolutions, and the 
French intervention, he formed part of that group of valiant 
literature heroes who, resting at intervals from the fatigues of 
war, continued to battle with their pens with no less heroism. 
Of this class of men were Guillermo Prieto, Riva Palacio, 
Altamirano, Juan de Dios Arias and many others. 

The Catholic, or conservative press, is well represented 
by " La Voz de Mexico " and "El Tiempo." The first 
mentioned of these newspapers is considered the highest 
authority, when treating of religious questions, but it 
occupies second place when dealing with political subjects. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 425 

El Tienipo is more politic than Catholic, more literary than 
propagandist, more scientific and modern than its accredited 
competitor. Both enjoy an extensive circulation through- 
out the Republic, that of El Tiempo exceeding 50,000 
copies weekly. Among the Catholic journals must be men- 
tioned "El Nacional," which is regarded as the quasi-official 
organ of the aristocracy of Mexico. Its news is select and 
opportune, both domestic and foreign, and its editorials 
are among the best written in Mexico. It was founded by 
the renowned litterateur, Mr. Gonzalo A. Esteva, the 
present Mexican minister to Italy, and its management is 
at present in charge of the well known economist, Mr. 
Gregorio Aldasoro. 

Among the organs of the liberal press, oppositionist, " El 
Democrata" and " La Repiiblica Mexicana " merit mention.^ 
The first named is under the management of Mr. Joaquin 
Clausel, its proprietor being Mr. Francisco R. Blanco, and 
the second is managed by the noted political writer, Mr. 
Enrique M. de los Rios. "El Diario Del Hogar," under 
the direction of Mr. Filomeno Mata, is a paper of aggres- 
sive opposition, which, like the former ones, is edited by 
juvenile pens, which do not always deal out justice, in the 
enthusiasm of their political ideals. Their opposition is 
apt to be exaggerated, but always sympathetic and in 
good faith. 

Among the organs of the foreign press in Mexico " The 
Two Republics " deserves especial mention. This journal 
was established in 1867, and enjoys the confidence and 
esteem of natives and foreigners alike. Its editor-in-chief, 
Mr. J. Mastella Clark, is one of the best informed members of 
the foreign element in Mexico on matters of interest to the 
country, and never ventures an opinion on any subject with- 
out knowing his subject thoroughly. " L'Echo-du-Me- 
xique," which is the organ of the French colony, edited by 
Mr. Samson, has taken the place formerly occupied by the 



426 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

old " Trait-d'Union," and enjoys a large circulation in 
the Eepublic. It contains the latest news concerning 
European affairs, and publishes interesting information 
relating to Mexican and American matters, which, are 
very well reproduced in France. The " Correo Espa- 
fiol," edited by Mr. Juan Miguel Sancho, is one of the 
most progressive journals in Mexico, and follows very 
closely in the footsteps of "El Universal." It labors 
sincerely and energetically for the union of the Spanish- 
American race. It numbers amongst its editorial talent 
both Spaniards and Mexicans. " La Germania" which is 
a journal published in German, is renowned for its pro- 
fundity and the critical manner in which it deals with 
strictly scientific subjects and international politics. Its 
editor, Mr. Isidoro Epstein, is a geographer and litterateur 
of considerable renown. " II Progresso." This is an 
Italian-Mexican journal, organ of the Italian colony, 
recently established, and is well received by the reading 
public of Mexico. Its first difficulties have been overcome 
and its progress is constant. Its efforts are directed to- 
wards the development of commercial relations between 
Mexico and Italy. 



Scientific Literary Publication. 

The following papers deserve particular mention, as 
having gained a solid and lasting reputation, viz. : The 
" Mexican Financier " and " Mexican Trader," the « e Econ- 
omista Mexican," the " Financial Eeview," the " Mexican 
Miner," " El Cosmos," " La Escuela Moderna," and the 
" Mexican Eeview," " The Foro " and " The Agricultural 
Eeview." 

There are others of importance, but which do not enjoy 
as large a circulation as the others just mentioned. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 427 



Periodical Publications. 

Those which circulated in the Republic up to the year 
1892, were: In the State of Aguascalientes, 12; Campeche, 
6 ; Colima, 3; Coahuila, 10; Chihuahua, 9; Chiapas, 6; 
Federal District, 133; Durango, 6; Guanajuato, 26; Guer- 
rero, 4; Hidalgo, 6; Jalisco, 29; Mexico (State), 2; 
Michoacan, 6; Morelos, 3; Nuevo Leon, 17; Oaxaca, 14; 
Puebla, 13 ; Queretaro, 3 ; San Luis Potosi, 7; Sinaloa, 6 ; 
Sonora, 6; Tabasco, 4; Tamaulipas, 16; Tlaxcala, 4; Vera- 
cruz, 39, making a total of 390 periodical publications in 
the entire Republic. 



PRIMARY EDUCATION IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 

VI. Article 82 of the reglamentary law of May 21, 1891, 
which became effective January 4, 1892, provides that 
there shall be one elementary primary school for boys and 
one for girls for every four thousand inhabitants. Taking 
as a basis the census of the capital, which is 326,594, some 
160 schools would be required in order to comply with the 
provisions of the law in question. Official statistics show 
that in January, 1892, there were 62 private free schools, 
and 195 pay schools with an attendance of 10,355 pupils, 
corresponding in compliance with the law, to approximately 
62,136 inhabitants, so that the number of these public 
schools might be decreased proportionately. Deducting 
the number of inhabitants for whom the proper number of 
schools have been provided, viz.: 62,136 from the census 
above mentioned, would leave some 264,468 inhabitants 
for whom it was absolutely necessary to furnish schools in 
the ratio of one for each sex for each four thousand 
inhabitants. There should, therefore, be some 132 primary 
schools, of which number the General Government should 



428 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

sustain 9 for boys and 13 for girls, while the Local 
Assembly would be responsible for the maintenance of 57 
for boys and 53 for girls. 

At the close of the same year (1892), due to the untir- 
ing energy and strenuous efforts of the Local Assembly, 
the members of which sacrificed both time and patience 
in the accomplishment of their task, which was, however, 
a labor of love, inspired by truly patriotic sentiments, there 
had been established the following number of schools de- 
pendant upon the bounty of the Assembly in question, 
viz.: 

For boys 51 

For girls 50 

Mixed 3 

Night schools for male adults 8 

" « " female adults 1 

Total . 113 

The number of pupils enrolled was 21,159, with an 
average daily attendance of 10,178. Some 9,807 pupils 
presented themselves for examination. 

The expense attached to the branch of Public Instruction 
amounted to $206,130.27 divided as follows: 

Salaries $108,686.11 

Books, furniture, etc 62,423.13 

Rent of houses 35,021.03 

Total. $206,130=27 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



429 



VII. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE STATES IN THE YEAR 1890. 





Establishments Supported 

by the States' and Cities' 

Governments. 


Average 
Attend 


Monthly 
ance. 


Total. 


• STATES. 


For 
Men. 


o a 

fa o 


•6 

.id 


73 • 
o 


Males. 


Females. 




















42 


21 




63 


1,630 


800 


2,430 








21 
128 
136 

88 
130 
408 
484 
269 


20 

36 

37 

38 

103 

45 

201 

172 


2 

3 

12 

4 

14 
6 


43 
167 
185 
130 
233 
467 
691 
441 


1,140 

1,670 

7,284 

4,368 

9,937 

10,276 

18,321 

14,300 


1,300 
336 
1,853 
3,070 
7,059 
2,467 
6,425 
7,751 


2,440 




2,006 
9,137 




7,438 




16,996 
12,743 




24,746 




22,051 








185 
50 
225 
449 
758 
81 


89 
51 
53 

87 
249 

27 


121 

92 
1 


274 
222 
278 
536 
1,099 
109 


12,448 
4,586 
13,800 
16,766 
30,275 
3,428 


7,438 
2,720 
8,032 
3,594 
12,944 
1,486 


19,886 
7,306 




21,832 
20,360 




43,219 




4,914 








106 

125 

45 

95 

165 

352 

221 

354 

141 

62 

14 


33 
39 
21 

41 

60 

108 

106 

168 

94 

29 

9 


161 
4 

2 
89 

1 

149 

16 

5 


300 

168 

66 

136 

227 

549 

328 

671 

251 

91 

28 


5,583 

4,468 

1,521 

6,106 

7,036 

13,516 

7,861 

12,107 

10,929 

2,090 

506 


3,390 
2,114 

528 
2,944 
2,762 
6,205 
3,582 
7,409 
6,863 
1,475 

398 


8,973 




6,582 




2,049 




9,050 
9,798 




19,721 




11,443 




19,516 


Federal District 

Territory of Tepic 
Terr, of Lower Cal. . 


17,792 
3,565 

904 




5,134 


1,937 


6S2 


7,753 


221,952 


104,945 


326,897 



Public instruction in 1S92. 



There are lacking the data relative to public instruction 
in the following States: Aguascalientes, Coahuila, Mexico 
and San Luis Potosi. 



430 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTEK III. 

The Public Beneficence. 

I. It is to Hernan Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, that 
we owe the first establishing of a Beneficent Institution in 
the city of Mexico. It was named the " Hospital de Jesus " 
and is, up to the present date, engaged in carrying out the 
work for which it was founded. It is sustained by the en- 
dowment made it by its founder. 

During the three centuries reign of the Colonial Govern- 
ment, beneficent institutions of all kinds were established 
by private individuals, as well as by the clergy and religious 
orders, which were generally directed by the latter. 

The first of these institutions to be taken in charge by 
the city council, were those which (up to the date of their 
expulsion, 1767), were controlled by the Jesuits, and the 
great wealth accumulated by them during two centuries 
reverted to the Public Treasury, where a body was formed, 
named " Temporalidades," to take charge of the funds, 
which body in turn organized a special Board, known by the 
name of " Aplicacioner," for the object of distributing the 
properties and values confiscated among all the remaining 
beneficent institutions. 

In the course of time other religious orders were sup- 
pressed, amongst them that of the Order of " Juaninos," 
which also directed the hospital of " San Juan de Dios." 
The properties and possessions thus confiscated were 
applied to charity, that is, they were given in trust to 
special Boards formed for each institution, or else put in 
care of the bishops who managed the land already apper- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 431 

taining to the various institutions in virtue of primitive 
endowments, and legacies, made them by their founders 
and charitable persons. 

During the struggle for independence and the agitated 
period which followed, much of the wealth belonging to 
the beneficent institutions was lost, and those establish- 
ments which survived, whether through the philanthropic 
efforts of private individuals or by reason of the protec- 
tion afforded them by the authorities of the combating 
forces, may be said to have passed through a veritable 
crises. 

In 1861 the secularization of the properties destined to 
beneficent works took place ; at which epoch the city council 
first took the management of the greater part of the work in 
hand, as some of the more recently established institutions 
were directed by the Federal Government, and a few others 
were in charge of private individuals, until in 1877 a general 
Administrative Board was formed, which put the institu- 
tions under the exclusive direction of the City Council and 
the Government. From the time of this concentrated 
management the Government in view of the regularity and 
economy that could be thus exerted, confided all questions, 
relative to beneficent works, to a Board formed in 1881, 
called the " General Directory of Charities," which was 
controlled by a General Manager, appointed by the Depart- 
ment of the Interior, and the directors of the various 
institutions who themselves had been appointed by the 
Department of the Interior, City Council or the scientific 
Faculty of the Institutions. 

In order to enable the General Directory to carry out its 
work, a staff of the employes was organized by the general 
manager, composed of the following personnel : a director, 
a treasurer, an auditor, two clerks, a janitor and a watch- 
man. The expenses thus incurred amounted in the way of 
salaries to $10,240.00 annually, to which sum must be ao-- 



432 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

gregated $420.00, the amount assigned for office and minor 
expenses. 

The institutions of the colonial epoch were established 
with a view of rendering help to all those that might be 
suffering from great misfortune — such as sickness, loss of 
mental faculties, or old age. 

As an example of the natural products of the march of 
civilization, many establishments can be named, that not 
only extend assistance to the helpless and infirm, as did 
those of former days, but that also have in view the devel- 
opment and advancement of the intellect and morals. 
Among the most prominent of these are the school of arts, 
the orphan asylum, asylum for the blind, deaf and dumb 
asylum, and many others which are mentioned in a special 
description in another part of this chapter, made with a 
view of showing the purposes for which the institutions 
were established, the hardships through which they passed 
and the final general good which they have done and are 
still doing. 

One of the first moves made by the General Directory ? 
was the erecting of an immense store-house, dedicated to 
the service of all institutions formed upon a charitable 
basis. The object of this was to purchase, at wholesale, 
all kinds of alimentary articles, as well as garments, fur- 
niture, bed clothing, and tools, which same were distrib- 
uted among the various hospitals, asylums, schools, etc., 
according to their needs. Besides which the store-house 
contained a bakery, a candle factory, and a sort of tailor 
shop where clothing was cut and prepared for making up, 
which, each in its way, was productive of great economy. 

These innovations were followed by the establishment of 
a great pharmacy, fitted up in the most perfect manner, 
containing the best utensils and instruments, and receiving 
directly from Europe or the United States (whichever 
proved most advantageous), all its primitive substances. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 433 

The object for which the pharmacy was established and the 
good derived from it may be easily imagined, which was to 
prepare all kinds of medicaments, and distribute them to 
the various apothecaries forming part of each institution ; 
in fact, many were the economies and great was the good 
done by the foresight of this body of protectors of charity. 

The preceding refers principally to the management of 
institutions of public charity, which are under the control 
of the Government. But, there are some institutions which 
have been founded by the foreign colonies, railroads, 
religious societies, and philanthropic individuals, that, being 
prompted by a proper spirit of charity, demanded by the 
ends for which they were established, are managed by 
Private Boards and are carrying on their work in a most 
approved and good-producing way. 

In accordance with the law of 1881, the General Directory 
has the entire control of all the possessions pertaiuing to 
the beneficent institutions which are made up of the fol- 
lowing: farms, and real estate, endowments and legacies 
(regardless of their origin), the sum apportioned by Con- 
gress, the amount of $500.00 daily assigned by the City 
Council, the moneys aggregating from fines, or taxes 
imposed by law, in their favor, and a few other minor 
sources of income. 

The following is a description of the institutions dedi- 
cated to the different charities. 

HOSPITALS. 

II. Hospital of " San Andres." In the year 1642 the 
Jesuits erected the edifice which to-day bears the char- 
acter of a charity hospital, with the object of establishing 
a novitiate of their order. 

Eio-ht years after its establishment it was closed for 
economical reasons, and, until 1676, it remained without 



434 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

any special application, when Captain Don Andres Carbaj-al 
donated a large sum to it, which permitted its being re- 
opened, and a continuation of the education of the noviti- 
ates, until the year 1714. 

After the expulsion of the Jesuits, the edifice was taken 
in charge by the Board of " Temporalidades," who did not 
dedicate it to any special purpose until 1779, when the city 
was visited by an epidemic of small-pox. In the face of 
this public calamity the Archbishop, Don Alonzo Nunez de 
Haro y Peralta, demanded of the Viceroy the permission 
to have 400 afflicted persons brought to it that they might 
be properly attended to. 

After the extermination of the epidemic, the above men- 
tioned prelate proposed that the edifice should be perma- 
nently converted into a charity hospital, and in 1783, his 
solicitation was granted; he also proposed that, in order to 
sustain the staff of employes, the hospital should be given 
a certain per cent of the revenues, proceeding from lotter- 
ies, prohibited games, and properties which had belonged to 
the Jesuits, which same was granted him in the year 1786. 

The sum raised by these means for the maintenance of 
the hospital in 1790, amounted to $1,454,657.00, which 
produced a revenue of $66,142.00. 

The hospital remained under the auspices of the Eccle- 
siastical Government until 1861, at which epoch its 
revenues were secularized. 

In the same year the care of the sick was left to the 
charge of the Sisters of Charity, and the direction, until 
January, 1877, was in the hands of the City Council, at 
which epoch it was confided to the General Directory, in 
whose charge it has remained ever since. 

In the course of time many important changes were 
made in the building, in order that it might be better fitted 
for the purpose to which it was destined. The opening of 
Xicotencatl street caused a separation of a part of the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 435 

building, in which were established the General Directory, 
the Central Pharmacy, the store-house, the bakery, the 
candle factory, etc. 

The various wards of the hospital are in charge of the 
most emninent physicians, who, it can be clearly seen from 
the small renumeration they receive, tender their services 
for a purely charitable motive ; the Medical Director re- 
ceiving $50 per month, the other physicians $40, other 
employes, including the Medical Professors, $717.00, and 
the attendants and servants $359.00. 

In the year 1861 the revenues of the hospital of San 
Andres, in accordance with the law of secularization, 
passed into the hands of the Federal Government. 

" San Juan De Dios " or " Morelos " Hospital. — 
This institution was founded about the middle of the 16th 
century by Doctor Pedro Lopez, for the sick mulattoes and 
half-breeds. It was afterwards called " Hospital de 
Nuestra Seiiora de los Desamparados," or " Hospital of 
our Lady of the Forsaken," and was changed into a 
" Foundling Asylum." 

In the year 1602 Philip III granted to the Monks of the 
Order of " San Juan de Dios," permission to establish 
their house in the New World, and they assumed charge of 
said hospital in the year 1604. 

In the year 1766 part of the building was destroyed by 
fire, and when, in 1820, the Spanish Parliament abolished 
all religious orders entrusted with the care and direction of 
hospitals, all the funds assigned to the maintenance of the 
" Foundling Asylum " disappeared. 

Later on the noted philanthropist, Don Caspar Ceballos, 
re-established it at his own expense, and from 1845tol874 
its direction was entrusted to the Sisters of Charity. 

In the month of July, 1868, persons suffering from ven- 
ereal diseases, who up to that time were occupying a ward 
in the hospital of " San Andres," were removed to that of 



436 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

" San Juan de Dios," which has since then been set apart 
to that class of patients, especially women. 

In 1875 its name was changed to that of " Morelos," 
which it now bears. 

It has supported itself from the proceeds of the dona- 
tion of its above named benefactor, which amounted to 
$200,000.00. 

The Arch-Duchess Carlota likewise assisted it, and 
her last gift was $4,000.00, which she remitted from 
Europe. 

The average number of patients cared for in the 
"Morelos" hospital is 150. The salaries of the Medical 
Director and his three medical assistants amounts to $170.00 
monthly, and those of all other employes to $453.00; but, 
nevertheless, the management is tolerably good. 

"San Hip6lito" Hospital. — Since the year 1556 
Bernardino Alvarez, known for his great charities, pro- 
posed to relieve the insane, invalid and aged persons from 
the hardships they experienced in the streets of Mexico. 
He at first gave them an asylum in his own house, but 
later on, counting with the assistance of some high digna- 
taries of the church, he applied for and was granted the 
land on which this hospital is erected. The founder, as- 
sisted by a private board, ministered to the wants of the 
inmates, and, shortly afterwards, this board became a 
religious order, its statutes being approved by the Pope 
and the King of Spain. This order was called " Brothers 
of Charity." It remained in charge of said hospital until 
1820, when it was uncloistered, and the City Council as- 
sumed control of the property, notwithstanding which the 
Brothers continued to care for its interior management until 
the year 1843. 

Shortly after its establishment the institution was dedi- 
cated exclusively to the care of the insane. 

The funds received by the City Council for its main- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 437 

tenauce amounted to $187,413.00 in real estate and mort- 
gages. 

In the year 1724 these funds were, by order of the 
Government, turned into the Treasury of the State of 
Mexico, but two years later they were returned to the City 
Council, which disbursed them until 1842, when they were 
taken charge of by the office of the " Secular Eevenues 
of the Clergy," called " Temporalidades," from which 
they disappeared under the administration of Santa Anna. 

Of late years the City Council and Federal Government 
have been managing the hospital, as all other charitable 
institutions. 

Up to the year 1878, the insane were confined in small 
cells ; but the progress made in this branch of Medical 
Science demanded alterations which have slowly been 
carried out. 

The average number of patients cared for is 150, more 
than one-third of which have become insane through 
alcoholism. 

The salaries of the doctors in charge amount to $196.66, 
and those of other employes $207.00. 

Asylum for Insane Women. — Prompted by their relig- 
ious belief, the conquerors had, during the Colonial Period, 
determined upon the establishment of a charitable institu- 
tion of this character. In the seventeenth century, a 
poor mechanic, called Jose Sayago, assisted by his wife, 
received in his own house a few insane women, thus savino- 
them from the mockery and jeers of the people. This 
charitable action having come to the ears of Archbishop 
Don Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas, he immediately came to 
their assistance. He granted them the use of a building m 
front of the church of " San Gregorio," where the patients 
were cared for by the congregation of the Divine Savior, 
until the year 1698. In 1700 this body purchased the 
house in Canoa street, which was converted into a hospital, 



438 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

which at the present day is dedicated to the treatment of 
insane women. 

Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits, the properties of the 
institution were placed in charge of the office of the 
* 4 Secular Revenues of the Clergy," or " Temporalidades." 

In the year 1800 the building was repaired at a cost of 
nearly $100,000.00, which were furnished in equal parts by 
public charities and the Government. 

In 1824, the Asylum had a capital of $101,572.00, besides 
which unpaid interest was due to the amount of $60,000.00. 
At that period it passed into the hands of the Federal Gov- 
ernment, and its funds were merged into those dedicated 
to public charities. In 1861 they were segregated, and in 
1863 returned to the Asylum. The Sisters of Charity had 
the management of its interior workings from 1855 to 1874. 

In the year 1825, the proceeds of a special lottery were 
assigned to its maintenance, which continued for a number 
of years. From 1877 to the present time it has been under 
the care of the General Directory of Public Charities. 

The average number of patients cared for is 180, and the 
monthly expenses of the management, in the way of salaries 
to doctors and the other employes, amounts to $281.00. 

" Juarez " Hospital. — The Battle of Padierna, fought 
against the United States troops, took place on the 23d of 
August, 1847, and, at the suggestion of Don Urbano 
Fonseca, the wounded were taken to a part of the convent 
of " San Pablo," then used as barracks. 

The City Council had contracted with the managers of the 
" San Andres" hospital for the care of the wounded sent 
by the police judges, but after the establishment of the 
temporary hospital for the wounded soldiers, it was de- 
cided to make it a permanent one, although civilians could 
be admitted. 

For some time this temporary hospital for the wounded 
was at " San Hip61ito," but, in 1851, the City Council pur- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 439 

chased the " San Pablo" building, and, the necessary 
changes and repairs being made, the sick were removed to 
it. The Sisters of Charity attended to the wounded, and 
had charge of the interior management of the institution. 

In the year 1867, Don Angel Echevarria, who died in 
Paris, left the hospital a legacy of 300,000 francs. This, 
however, was never paid into the city treasury, which has 
had, inconsequence, to assume the maintenance of the said 
hospital. 

This hospital has, as heretofore mentioned, always been 
dedicated to the care of the wounded, whether prisoners or 
otherwise, remitted by judges of the criminal courts or the 
police, as also of persons suffering from epilepsy, etc., or 
contagious diseases. 



ASYLUMS. 

III. " Foundling Asylum." — The founder of this Asy- 
lum was Don Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, Archbishop of 
Mexico. A house on " Carmen " square was rented on 
January 7th, 1767, for the purpose of caring for babies 
abandoned at birth, as well as those brought by mothers 
who were unable to give them proper care. On the 21st 
of the same month the first child was received. 

The founder supplied all the necessary funds, which 
were considerable, and a few years later the Asylum was 
removed to a house purchased on Puente de la Merced 
street, at a cost of $23,000.00. 

In 1774, by decree of Charles III, it was declared a pub- 
lic institution under the name of " Royal Foundling Asy- 
lum of St. Joseph," under the management of Archbishops. 
After the declaration of Independence, it passed into the 
hands of the clergy, and its management was confided to a 
Board of Officers and Treasurer, who were appointed by the 
Archbishop. 



440 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 

In the year 1836 its direction was intrusted to a board 
of ladies, who obtained funds by means of public festivals 
and collections at the doors of churches. In 1850, these 
ladies retired, having fulfilled their object, and the institu- 
tion was placed in charge of one director and a treas- 
urer. 

Upon the secularization of the property of the clergy, 
in 1861, the Government appointed a Board of Charities, 
which took charge of the asylum, and in 1862, the Secretary 
of the Interior, Don Manuel Doblado, directed that it should 
be under the control of that Department, which disposition 
has remained in force up to the present, being as it is sub- 
ject to the management of the General Directory. 

The properties of the asylum were obtained in the fol- 
lowing manner: upon the expulsion of the Jesuits and other 
religious orders, the Board of Adjudicators, then created, 
gave the Archbishop $30,000.00 to be applied to it ; its 
founder donated $40,000.00, and the collections during 
three years amounted to $32,000.00; the interest on this 
capital produced $14,227.00, so that four years after its 
foundation, the foundling asylum had a total capital of 
$116,227.00. A portion of this was remitted to Spain by 
the Count de Eevillagigedo, and afterwards the expenses 
were covered by donations. 

In 1810, with the view of enlarging the premises, the 
asylum purchased, at a cost of $14,000.00, the house bear- 
ing No. 4, in Puente de la Lena street. 

The donations and legacies left to the Asylum have 
reached a considerable sum. Mrs. Hipolita Caballero y 
Desa, by will, deeded it all her property, consisting of nine 
houses, v&lued at $40,555.00 ; in 1829, she donated $24,- 
438.00 in her own right, and $40,000.00 as executor of the 
will of Don Jesus Martinez, besides which two houses, on 
" Pulqueria de Palacio " street, which had belonged to the 
Inquisition, were adjudicated to the said asylum, the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 441 

capital of which was then $281,854.27, besides $10,200.00 
interest due and unpaid. 

Bishop Lizana donated to it jewelry which was sold for 
$6,136,00, and in the year 1861, Don Jose Maria Eico, left 
it in his will a legacy of $8,000.00. Don Andres Cervan- 
tes gave $2,351.00. Don Sabastian Lerdo de Tejada, 
$2,000.00. Don Francisco Higareda, $4,800.00, and an 
unknown benefactor $6,000.00, and even in our days, 
small donations are very frequent. 

It would be useless to refer to the various changes in the 
politics of the country that affected the property of the 
asylum. We must, however, recall the generous action of 
Director Don Manuel Pay no, who, at the time of the 
alienation of the property of the clergy, to prevent the 
adjudication of the Institution's property to others, which 
would have resulted in total loss, had it adjudicated to him- 
self, maintained it from its own revenues, and, after the 
war of reformation, restored it to the asylum. The houses 
were under his management for fifteen years, during which 
time the capital of the institution was notably increased. 

In the year 1874 it amounted to $678,449.62, some of 
which, however, was in litigation and suspense, leaving an 
actual capital of $303,118.42. The monthly rentals 
amount to $1,081,73; the Asylum received besides $500.00, 
from the Federal Government, the proceeds of a spe- 
cial lottery, which, with donations amounted to from $400 
to $500, and in 1875, the capital resulting from the ex- 
pulsion of the Sisters of Charity, was assigned to it. 

In 1877 it passed under the control of the General 
Directory of Charities, which has managed it from that 
time. 

Poor House. — This institution was founded in 1763 at 
the suggestion of Don Fernando Ortiz Cortez ; the building 
was concluded and formally opened in the year 1774. It 
was enlarged in 1776 at a cost of $17,000.00, and wards 



442 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

were opened for the special use of females in a delicate 
condition. 

One of its greatest benefactors was Don Francisco Ziifiiga, 
Captain of the Dragoons, who erected the "Patriotic" 
school, annexed to the asylum, and which was opened in the 
year 1806, the building of which cost $500,000.00. This 
same benefactor endowed the institution with $250,000.00, 
and the Government offered to give it a like sum from the 
proceeds of the mines, it being understood that the capital 
bearing three per cent interest to be applied to its main- 
tenance, should be deposited in the National Treasury. 

The resources of the asylum consisted of various dona- 
tions ; $200.00 given monthly by the Archbishop Don Alonzo 
Nunez de Haro, $600.00 by the Chapter of the Cathedral, 
$100.00 monthly by the City Council, the proceeds of rentals 
and unoccupied lands designated by the Viceroy. 

This valuable estate disappeared during the war of Inde- 
pendence, and to maintain the institution it was found neces- 
sary to let various portions of the asylum and " Patriotic " 
school, which were combined in 1819, and later on part of 
it was torn down to provide for the opening of " Provi- 
dencia " street. 

Under the laws of secularization, or alienation, the 
lessees took possession of the portions they occupied, thus 
reducing the asylum to two-thirds of its former size. 

The earthquake of 1845 damaged the building consider- 
ably, but it was repaired through the support of Don 
Francisco Fagoasra, to whom was due the establishment of 
a ward for the care of the blind. 

Up to the time of their expulsion, the Sisters of Charity 
had charge of the interior management of the asylum. It 
has since the year 1877 been under the control of the Board 
of Charities. 

Upon reaching the age of ten years, the children in the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 443 

asylum are transferred to the School of Arts and Trades, 
where they continue their education and apprenticeship. 

The number of inmates is generally 650, and salaries and 
wages amount to over $700.00 monthly. 

Lying-in Hospital and Asylum for Infants. — The 
founders of the asylum for the poor had assigned a ward for 
the care of women who, either to hide their shame or 
through misery, came to it to be delivered. This ward was 
called that of " Secret Child-births. " Great discretion 
was observed; so much so that the applicants were not 
asked to give their names. A medical certificate of their 
condition was sufficient to secure admission. 

This ward was always in a most neglected condition, and 
the foundation of an actual and effective Lying-in Hospital 
is due to Princess Carlota, who provided it with everything 
necevssary to fulfill its object. In the year 1866 the build- 
ing was concluded, and it was formally opened. The cost 
of repairs, furniture and instruments, etc., amounted to 
$14,314.76. 

Tne Constitutional Government continued to add to this 
institution, and in 1869, Dona Luciana A. de Baz obtained 
permission to remove to it the sick children, who, up to 
that time, had been cared for in the " San Andres Hos- 
pital. " It had been, in honor of its founder, known as 
"San Carlos Hospital," but its name was now changed 
to that of " Lying-in Hospital and Asylum for Infants. " 
There has also been established a ward consisting of six 
rooms, one for female children suffering from contagious 
diseases, two for male children, dining room, baths and 
dispensary and in 1877, following such a noble example, 
the Veracruz Railway Company erected at its own ex- 
pense another ward for female children similarly affected. 

For the service of this department, there have been 
assigned a doctor, two practitioners, a nurse, two helpers 
and a washwomen. 



444 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The infirmary of the hospital intended for the reception 
of children of both sexes consists of a room for females, 
another for males and a dining room. 

There are in addition, three rooms, one for the purposes 
of a general infirmary and two for the use of children, the 
character of whose sickness requires isolation. 

This department is attended to by a doctor, two practi- 
tioners, a nurse, two helpers and a washwoman. 

In the lower portion of the building are located the 
wardrobes, laundries, the chapel, the surgical quarters, 
the kitchen, the rooms assigned for effecting cures and 
consultations, also a small garden. 

The department of maternity consists of two wards, one 
for isolated cases previous to delivery and the other for 
the use of same during convalescences. 

There are, in addition to this, a ward in which examina- 
tions are made, two bath rooms with the necessary appar- 
atus, ten separate rooms for the use of patents during the 
period of delivery, a habitation for the portress, apothe- 
cary shop, dining room and an amphitheater provided with 
a disecting table. 

For the use of this department there have been assigned 
two doctors, two midwives, two practitioners, five nurses 
and two washwomen. 

Dr. Eduardo Liceaga, President of the Local Assembly, 
is the Director of this hospital. 

SCHOOLS. 

IV. School for the Blind. — The object of this institu- 
tion is not only to educate the blind, but also to minister to 
their wants during their childhood and youth. The institu- 
tion was founded in 1870 by Don Ignacio Trigueros, who 
proposed, by way of example, to educate one of the pupils. 
The following year, the Government, adopting Trigueros' 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 445 

project, took the school under its protection and destined 
to it part of the ex-convent of " La Enseiianza." 

The various branches of study duly appear in the portions 
of this work relating to public instruction. 

The female blind are also educated in this school, but in 
a department separated from that of the male pupils. 

That portion of the ex-convent devoted to the school was 
formerly used as a city jail. This, of course, made im- 
portant reforms and changes indispensable. Among these 
may be mentioned the erection of a handsome entrance to 
the institution. 

School of Arts and Trades for Women. — This may 
be classed among charitable institutions, as the pupils at- 
tending it receive their food as well as the special educa- 
tion imparted in it. A part of the convent of " Santa 
Maria" was assigned for its use. Complete alterations 
for that purpose were concluded in the year 1874. Two 
years later the pupils exhibited works of considerable 
merit at the Municipal Exposition, which was awarded 
several prizes. 

There are over five hundred pupils in the school.* 

The Industrial School at Santiago. — The poor 
house is exclusively dedicated to the care of the young and 
aged indigents, hence for many years youthful transgressors 
of the law were associated with hardened criminals in the 
same prisons. Don Eduardo Goroztiza comprehended the 
obvious evils resulting therefrom and, in the year 1841, 
determined to establish a Correctional School for the 
young. 

In this he was assisted by the general Government, the 
City Council and the District Board, which then existed. 

A department in the poor house was at first assigned to 
it, but the necessity of separating both institutious becom- 



* Vide: "Public Instruction." 



446 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

ing daily more apparent, the building called " Tecparn de 
Santiago," was leased in 1850, owing to the growth and 
the increasing necessities of the city of Mexico, and the 
establishment admitted indiscriminately children guiltless 
of any delinquency (who, from lack of accommodation, 
could not be received in the asylum dedicated to them), as 
also those sent by their families to be disciplined, and a 
separation of the [guilty from the innocent soon became 
indispensable o 

Work-shops were established and the institution was then 
called " The San Antonio Correctional College." 

In the year 1856 the proceeds from licenses of prohibited 
games and fines resulting therefrom were assigned to the 
College, which permitted the purchase of the building it 
occupied at a cost of $4,000.00. In the year 1877, the 
work-shops and tools were removed from the Poor Asylum 
to the School of Santiago, and, by direction of the Board 
of Charities, who then had control of the institution, all 
children above ten years of age were transferred to it. 

A separation of the two classes of inmates was still more 
severely felt and in 1879 the Secretary of the Interior as- 
signed to those undergoing correction a department in the 
ex-convent of " Santa Maria." 

The salaries aud wages of employes amount at present to 
$8,122.13, and the number of inmates to 250. 

Correctional School. — Young prisoners undergoing 
sentence, at first occupied, as has been seen, a department 
of the Asylum for the Poor, and afterwards ot the " Indus- 
trial School," until Lawyer Justo Benitez submitted to the 
consideration of the Board of Public Charities the creation 
of an Agricultural Colony, to be composed of youths remit- 
ted by the authorities. This suggestion was adopted by the 
Supreme Government who contributed $4,000 for that pur- 
pose, which, together with the funds assigned by the Board 
of Public Charities, were used in the purchase, at a cost of 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 447 

$10,898.00, of a ranch situated in Coyoacan. This was 
known as the ranch of the " Camile Fathers," or, " Mo- 
moluco." In March, 1880, possession was taken and the 
ninety-two youths undergoing sentence at the Industrial 
School were transferred thereto. 

Correctional School of Trades and Professions. 

This school was founded in the year 1881, being located in 
the edifice formerly known as St. Peter and St. Paul's col- 
lege. To its custody are assigned for instruction, young 
people under 18 years of age, upon whom gubernative sen- 
tences have been passed, or who have been taken in charge 
by request of their parents or guardians, for the purpose 
of correcting their evil tendencies and teaching them habits 
of order and industry. The institution is of a military 
character in its organization, and its correctional corps 
consists of a body known as the " Workino- Battalion." 
The scholars who distinguish themselves by their good 
behavior, are entitled to premiums or works of distinction, 
and continue to advance to the rank of captain, first or 
second sergeant, and enjoy the prerogatives of their class. 

The library instruction which they receive is of the most 
modern character, and is given the pupils for one or two 
hours daily. 

For the elementary and industrial instruction there are 
classes and workshops under the direction of competent 
skilled mechanics and workmen. 

The education of the pupils is based upon primary and 
second primary classes, and they may pursue other studies 
or enter the shops. 

There are machine shops, iron working, brass working, 
carpentry, tailoring and shoe shops. 

V. National Loan Office, "Monte de Piedad." 

In the year 1781, and with the view of benefitting the 
needy classes, Don Pedro Romero de Terreros, Count of 
Iiegla, who had acquired immense wealth through the mines 



448 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of Eeal del Monte, decided to open a house where money 
would be loaned on all pledges. 

In 1775 it was opened to the public in a large building 
erected on the ground formerly occupied by the Palace of 
Moctezuma. At first no fixed rate of interest was estab- 
lished, it being left to the persons who were benefitted to 
give what they thought fit. These sums were applied to 
meet expenses. This was not practical and had not a 
moderate rate of interest been established, the capital 
destined to such a noble purpose would soon have become 
exhausted, and as sums of considerable importance bad 
been lost annually, at the commencement, it was decided to 
set the interest at the rate of one per cent per month. 

In the year 1857 it was projected to extend the opera- 
tions of the institution by the establishment of a bank of 
discount, but this was not carried into effect until 1880. 
Shortly before that, and through the opening of eight 
branch houses in the suburbs of the city, the amount of 
loans had considerably increased. 

The bills issued by the " Monte de Piedad " Bank were 
well received by businessmen, and its credit was so good that 
sums amounting to more than half a million of dollars 
were annually left with it as " confidential deposits." A 
savings bank was also established, but its operations have 
always been very limited. 

In the year 1884 the bank failed and it was only 
through great exertions that the loan office and a few of 
the branch houses were saved from the wreck ; of these 
latter, all those established in 1882 in some cities of the 
interior, were closed. The National Loan Office has now 
recovered its credit. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 449 



SUMMARY OF THE REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL 
LOAN OFFICE, FOR THE YEAR 1892. 

Cash on hand February 4th, 1893 $212,620.20 

Liabilities, including $6,525 in bills of the bank not presented 
for redemption • 527,394.51 

The central office and [the three branch houses have 
during the year carried on the different operations of the 
business and loaned in January alone on 26,976 lots $158,- 
578.00, including $57,512.50, on articles repledged. 

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF LOANS EFFECTED IN 1891 AND 

1892. 

1891 1892. 

January $184,325 00 $159,057 25 

February 157,437 75 202,004 00 

March 165,823 50 184,336 50 

April.. 147,588 75 155,675 50 

May 193,847 50 176,476 00 

June 197,136 25 167,763 75 

July 211,117 50 202,83125 

August 186,430 00 167,606.00 

September 231,172 00 167,513 25 

October 174,961 75 172,177 50 

November 170,165 25 195,040 75 

December 172,940 00 173,116 50 

$2,192,945 25 $2,123,598 25 
The total amount loaned during 1892, upon pledges and ob- 
jects to be sold at public auction was $1,041,930 34 

CENTRAL LABORATORY AND STORE HOUSE. 

VI. For the better and more economical management of 
all the institutions under the control of the Board of Public 
Charities, this store house was opened and placed under the 
direction of a professor of pharmacy, duly licensed, and 
under an approved bond to the amount of $3,000 00. 

The directors receives a salary of $100.00 monthly, and 

' 29 



450 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

is provided with an assistant having experience in drug-store 
practice and two subordinates. 

This store house supplies medicines to the local ones at 
" San Andres" and "Juarez" hospitals, as also to the 
" Morelos " hospital. This last furnishes them to the 
" Lying-in hospital and asylum for insane women." 
Each of these local ones is in charge of a licensed druggist 
and an assistant; and, in order to facilitate the carrying 
out of accounts, these pay at stated periods the value of 
medicines they have received, into the general store-house. 
These amounts are used to replace exhausted supplies. 

Free Consulting Rooms. — These rooms were opened 
at the " San Andres " hospital, and patients who prove 
their absolute poverty are there treated gratis and have 
their prescriptions filled. 

Four doctors are in attendance and the applicants may 
consult the one who inspires them with the most confidence, 
always observing, however, the rules of the establishment. 

Checks, marked from one to 80, are distributed every 
afternoon among the applicants, who are received and ad- 
mitted in regular order to the respective consulting rooms. 
The doctors may perform in this part of the hospital any 
slight surgical operations they may deem necessary. 

benevolent institutions of the states. 

VII. Rare is the city of ordinary importance in the Re- 
public that does not contain one or more Benevolent Insti- 
tutions; generally they-are hospitals and asylums. 

A statement would be too lengthy that would cover the 
description and history of each one of these establishments, 
or even make a report of those only which are sustained 
by the proceeds of rich properties attached to them, or 
sustained at the expense of the Local Governments or city 
authorities. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 451 

The following statement will show the great desire of the 
Governments to throw a generous protection over the 
destitute and helpless, calling attention to the fact that 
many of the States do not appear in this enumeration, not 
owing to the scarcity of these establishments in these States, 
but because of the slowness of the Governments in not 
having published the data, or because if said data was pub- 
lished it has not yet reached us. 

Veracruz. — There are seven Benevolent Institutions in 
this State, situated in the Cantons of Veracruz, Orizaba, 
Cordoba, Jalapa, Coatepec, San Andres, Tuxtla and in the 
City of Tlacotalpam, Misantla and Papantla. 

Directly in charge of these establishments are the 
Committees of Chanty established in Cordoba, Chicon- 
tepec, Huatusco, Jalapa, Minatitlan, Orizaba, Papantla, 
Tanloyuca, Las Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Jalancingo and Mis- 
antla. 

The capital belonging to the various institutions consists 
of real estate and money at interest, the total amount 
of which is $1,163,511.00, and yields a revenue of $36,- 
024.21. 

The landed property, the revenue from which is used by 
the Committees of Charity, is worth $513,565.00. 

The properties of the institutions are divided as follows : — 

In Coatepec, two houses, value $2,300 00 

la Cordoba, 13 houses, two farms = 18,746 67 

Jalapa, 16 houses, 1 ranch, 1 farm 26,717 62 

Orizaba, 67 houses, ex -convent of La Concordia, commons of , 

Escamela, and wild lands of San Juan, two cemetaries, the 

"theater Llave," and the ranch of Canal, value 180,119 34 

Veracruz, 121 houses, 2 farms and 1 ranch 487,057 63 

Total $714,94126 

In addition to the sums produced by the various proper- 
ties and money at interest belonging to the institutions, the 
local Government and the city authorities donate to the 



452 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

establishments from an exceedingly large fund which they 
hold in trust for this purpose. 

The Hospital of San Sebastian, in the port of Vera- 
cruz, is probably the first in importance in the entire 
Eepublic. In it they treat more than five thousand sick 
annually, only males', as there is in the same city the 
Loreto Hospital, where they treat 2,200 females each 
year. 

The cost of maintaining these establishments is $135,000. 

In the port there is also an establishment where the 
orphans are educated and assistance given to the old and 
decrepid. It has an endowment of $47,000 annually. 

In Jalapa there are two hospitals, one for males and the 
other for females, and they are sustained by the revenues 
derived from the Jauregui market, the money invested 
belonging to the committee and the donations from the State 
Government and city authorities. In the year 1886, the 
building used as a hospital in Tlacolalpam was finished, 
and its operations are sustained in the same manner as in 
Jalapa. In Cordova there are also two hospitals, and in 
the other places where there are Committees of Charity 
there are also hospitals. 

The endowments that they have are not only sufficient 
to cover the most necessary expenses, but likewise to allow 
the constant introduction of improvements, and the capital 
is still steadily increasing. 

Nuevo Leon. — In Monterrey, which is the Capital of the 
State, there exists two magnificent benevolent institu- 
tions, the Hospital Gonzalez and the Institution Leon 
Ortigoza. 

The first of these were founded by the learned and 
philanthropic doctor Don Jose Eleuterio Gonzalez, and was 
built under the exclusive direction of the Government. It 
was also endowed with the private money of the founder in 
his will. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 453 

The hospital is supported by Government subsidies and 
funds paid by those of the patients who can afford it ; it 
also receives various contributions allowed by the law, and 
donations from corporations and individuals. The Health 
Council has the entire direction of this establishment, in 
which the sick of both sexes are treated. 

There is besides this a department used as a maternity 
hospital, and also six rooms for the exclusive use of the 
insane — this last department receives the very best 
attention. 

There is spent in this hospital $10,000 annually, which 
exactly covers its necessary expenses. All expenses of 
keeping the establishment .in repairs, necessary improve- 
ments and the purchasing of necessary articles, etc., are 
outside of the above estimate and is all attended to by the 
Government, with unusual liberality. 

They treat in this hospital, approximately, 1,000 sick 
annually, the mortality being about ten per cent. 

The Institution of Leon Ortigoza is a private one and is 
devpted to the care of fifty of the old and decrepid. Its 
founder was in Europe and there secured the capital nec- 
essary for its support. According to the wishes of the 
legatee, the exclusive managers of the institution are Mr. 
Valentin Eivero y Gaja, either jointly or separately, and 
their legal successors will have the same powers. 

The institution was inaugurated in 1889. 

Chiapas. — There are hospitals in San Cristobal, L. C, 
Comitan and Tuxtla ; all are in charge of Committees of 
Charity, named by the Governor of the State. 

In addition to their joint capital, which is $10,036, and 
is invested in fourteen countrj' houses and four city houses, 
the establishments are sustained by an especial tax, which 
produces $2,000, annually. 

In the Hospital of San Cristobal, L. C, they treat at the 
very lowest estimate, forty patents daily. 



454 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

The Hospital of Comitan has a capital of $9,012, which 
produces close to $1,500 yearly, as it is invested in 
mortgage bonds bearing from 13 to 20 per cent. 

The Hospital of San Cristobal, L. C, has an income of 
$18,116.49. Besides its own capital it has set aside for 
its expenses numerous municipal taxes. 

The Hospital of Tuxtla Gutierrez has a capital of $6,303, 
which is invested in mortgages at 12 per cent. When 
there is a shortage in the estimate, it is covered by the 
city authorities. 

Besides the above mentioned establishments, there is in 
the city prison a department where they treat the sick pris- 
oners with great attention. 

The hospital located in San Cristobal, L. C, called 
" San Juan de Dios," in addition to the capital mentioned, 
has $3,000, given by the heirs of Mr. Candido Eivero, and 
$9,000 was added to this by this same gentleman, this is 
invested in property which he purchased at a judicial sale. 
The Government of the Republic of Guatamala owes to the 
Hospital San Juan de Dios the sum of $5,000. 

Of the capital mentioned, lastly, none of the benevolent 
institutions can obtain the returns from such sums, but the 
State Governments and City Councils supply the amount 
that is lacking to cover the running expenses. 

Chiapas is a rich State and the greater part of its in- 
habitants can afford to educate their sons, and for this 
reason the preserving of the health of the people, and very 
few are so poor as to need to ask aid from the State in 
case of sickness. 

MlCHOACAN, MOEELIA, Z AMOR A, PaTZCUARO, La PlEDAD 

and Tacambaro, all have hospitals whose expenses are cov- 
ered by donations from the State Government and their 
respective city authorities, and the proceeds from various 
funds invested in city and country property, which funds 
were donated by private parties. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 455 

There is in the Hospital of Moreliu a department devoted 
to maternity, the construction of which cost $3,216.00. 

The funds devoted to these benevolent institutions pro- 
duce annually $17,879.50, and there are times when the re- 
ceipts amount to $22,740.00, when special pains are taken 
with the collections. 

There is in the Hospital of San Cristobal a department 
devoted exclusively to the treatment of public women 
afflicted with syphilis. 

Besides the above mentioned establishments, there is in 
the capital of the State a pawnshop which was inaugurated 
in 1881, and there is a capital of about $60,000.00 in this 
establishment. They make loans on pledges, at the rate 
of one-half (\°Io) per cent per month, when in the private 
establishments of this character the rate of interest is six to 
twelve (6% to 12%) per cent, for the same period of 
time. 

The School of Arts and Trades is also a benevolent estab- 
lishment which gives instruction at the same time. It is 
organized and operated in such a perfect manner, that year 
by year it shows a handsome profit over expenses. From 
the surplus derived from the investments of its funds and 
from the school of instruction, it was proposed at one time 
to increase the capital of the pawnshop, but the idea was 
not carried out. The pawnshop not only earns enough to 
cover all expenses, but pays a considerable profit yearly, 
hence, in the opinion of the managers of the pawnshop, 
such a step was not deemed necessary. It is calculated 
at present, that the capital of the pawnshop is $60,000.00, 
as above said, while it began its operations with only 
$35,000.00. 

Tabasco. — There is a hospital in San Juan Bautista, the 
capital of this State, whose operations cost $15,000.00 
annually and they treat 1,700 people in the same period of 
time. This building is very commodious, because they 



456 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

have united to the building donated by the Government, 
other buildings willed for this purpose by Mr. Jose Pulido 
Carrefio. 

The Government of Tabasco, like the greater part of the 
other States, was contemplating increasing the donations 
to this benevolent institution, but it did not do so because 
it was found that the establishment was giving perfect sat- 
isfaction with its present financial arrangements for its 
support. 

Sonora. — There are in this State three hospitals ; one at 
Hermosillo, Alamos and Guaymas. In addition there is in 
the city of Hermosillo a pawnshop which yields sufficient 
profit to slowly improve these establishments. It is diffi- 
cult to say which of these is the best — but it is sufficient 
to say that all are satisfying the local needs. 

The hospital of Guaymas was constructed at a cost of 
$17,112.00, which was furnished by various private parties, 
the State and City Governments. 

The hospital in Alamos is supported by the people of the 
town, who have voluntarily subscribed a monthly sum for 
this purpose. The small amount lacking to carry on the 
establishment is furnished by the town authorities. 

Guerrero. — The private associations, assisted by the 
respective city governments, sustain infirmaries and asylums 
in perhaps all of the towns of this State, where the popu- 
lation exceeds 5,000. 

In parts of the State where the population is scattered, 
there are no establishments worthy of mention ; nevertheless, 
there is not an abandoned infant, orphan or infirm person, 
but who will receive immediate protection from the local 
authorities, private associations of charity, or benevolent 
religious societies. 

Colima. — The City Council of this capital have set aside 
$10,000.00 annually for the use of the public hospital es- 
tablished in that place. The philanthropic public donate 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 457 

annually $3,000 or $4,000 for the support of the sick and 
needy, either young or old. 

Guanajuato. — The capital of this State has property 
devoted entirely to the use of benevolent establishments 

Valuedat $72,49124 

Silao, a city of the same State, lias • •• 31,136 00 

Leon 61,710 00 

San Miguel Allende 13,129 00 

Total $178,466 24 

Besides these amounts devoted to the Benevolent Institu- 
tions, the city authorities of Leon donate annually $1,200.00 
to their local institution; Silao donates $600.00 for the 
some purpose and there are various other sums which we 
cannot now name, donated by the city authorities of other 
places for this good work. 

In addition to the benevolent establishments sustained by 
the funds and donations before mentioned, there is estab- 
lished in Leon a pawnshop, whose capital is $30,000.00. 
It produces a handsome profit which is devoted to' sustain- 
ing the hospital of «' San Juan de Dios," located in the 
above mentioned city. 

There are in this State ten hospitals and two poorhouses, 
one in Guanajuato and the other in Silao. 

There is in Guanajuato a foundling hospital and a home 
for reformed women. 

The city and State Governments, and notable private par- 
ties, donate heavily, which sums united with the proceeds 
derived from their properties, are sufficient to conduct 
these institutions in a splendid manner. 

Durango. — There are three large benevolent establish- 
ments in this State — the public hospital, the poorhouse of 
San Carlos, and the pawnshop. To the first of these the 
State Government donates $8,200.00 annually, which is 



458 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

sufficient to give proper attention to the sick, the wounded 
and the insane. 

The poorhouse of San Carlos was built and is sustained 
by private parties. The State Government contributes for 
its expenses only $1,000,00 annually. A benevolent com- 
mittee attends to the distribution of the money devoted to 
these establishments. The same benevolent committee in 
1873 organized a pawnshop with a small capital, which 
has been constantly increasing, having now a capital of 
$30,000.00; the profits from this pawnshop are used for 
benevolent purposes and for the benefit of the establishments 
before mentioned. 

Queretaro. — In 1881 there was created a committee 
which bears the name of Vergara, in whose care is placed 
all the benevolent institutions, which are sustained by 
property left by various private benefactors, such as Senora 
Josef a Vergara, Don Francisco Fagoaga, Don Jose Perez 
Arce, and several others. 

The State Government gives to the committee annually 
$10,000\00, which is devoted to the same establishments. 

The capital consists of $52,000.00 invested at various 
rates of interest, $24,000.00 in houses, and the rest, 
$85,000, consists in various lands and cash. 

In this hospital they treat 1,200 sick annually, the mor- 
tality being fifteen per cent. Among the wounded, who 
constitute a third part of the patients, the mortality is only 
five per cent. This difference is notable and the cause 
is undoubtedly due to the fact that the sick do not seek a 
bed in the hospital until their illness is very grave — 
frequently they die very soon after entering the hospital. 

In the same city of Queretaro there is an institution 
where they maintain and educate 120 homeless children, 
besides which they feed from 90 to 100 poor who do not 
live in the establishment. 

In the important city of San Juan del Rio, of this State, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 459 

there is a hospital which has $40,000.00 in property and a 
donation of $1,600 to $1,800 given by the city authorities. 
This hospital treats 150 sick annually and the expense is 
approximately $2,000.00 for the same length of time. 

Miss Manuela Gomez de la -Cortina y Adalid left a legacy 
of $3,000.00 for the foundation of a hospital in the Villa of 
Colon, district of Toliman. 

Chihuahua. — The activity of the Private Benevolent 
Committees and the facilities that the inhabitants of this 
State have for the distribution of the necessaries of life, 
has relieved the State Government from devoting large 
sums of money for the sustainment of benevolent insti- 
tutions. 

The city authorities of the capital of the State have 
donated $300.00 monthly to the public hospital where they 
treat fifteen to twenty sick. 

In 1888, Mr. Juan Terrazas, proposed the erection of an 
orphan asylum and a school of correction, and in a ver}' 
short time $2,200.00 was collected from private parties to 
begin the work. 

As an example of the activity of private benevolence, we 
relate the fact that in the city of Chihuahua, which contains 
a small number of inhabitants, they collected $10,300.00 
to help the flood sufferers of Leon and Silao, in the year 
1888. 

Hidalgo. — There are hospitals in Pachuca, Actopan, 
Huichapan, Ixmiquilpan, Tula, Tulancingo, Zimapan, and 
at Atotonilco. 

The hospital in Huichapan is sustained by Mr. Jose Maria 
Chavez Macotela, and the others by money given by the 
Municipalities and State Government, which spend in 
sustaining these places $5,500.00 annually. 

The proceeds from the funds that was given, by the Ha- 
cienda of Coscotitlan, to the hospital of Pachuca, the gifts 



4 GO THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

and the donations of the city covered the rest of the 
expenses. They treat annually 1,500 to 1,700 sick, among 
whom the mortality is nine per cent. 

In the Hospital of Zimapan they only treat the wounded 
sent there by the police or the courts. 

Moreeos. — Each leading town of a district has a hospi- 
tal but the principal ones are those of Cuernavaca, Yautepec, 
Cuautla, Tetecala and Tonacatepec. These are sustained 
by the State Government and city authorities, and are in 
charge of employes or benevolent committees. 

In the Hospital of Cuernavaca there has been established 
since 1889, a maternity hospital, which is sustained by a 
society of ladies, aided by the State Government ; from 
900 to 1,000 sick are treated annually. The mortality is 
very high, reaching twenty per cent. 

Jalisco. — Private benevolent societies sustain numerous 
establishments scattered among the cities and towns of the 
State. The State Government and city authorities only 
contribute small amounts to cover the expenses. 

In Guadalajara, the capital of the State, there is a home 
for the poor, and the hospital of Belem. 

These two establishments were formerly assisted by the 
Sisters of Charity, of the Catholic clergy, who gave 
$7,000.00 annually for their sustainment. When the above 
named were expelled from the country these establishments 
were left in charge of the Government. 

The Government donated to these establishments a spe- 
cial tax, derived from leaf tobacco, a third part of the fines 
and commutation of punishments. 

The founders of these two establishments were the philan- 
thropists, Alcalde and Cabanas, 

In Lagos, a large and important city in this State, there 
is a good hospital, sustained by Mr. Lario. In Sayula 
there is another establishment of the same kind, sustained 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 461 

by a public tax on the city and $1,700.00 annually given 
by the Government and an especial tax on packages, created 
especially for the use of this place. 

Mrs Alva y Mazuca left in her will a hacienda, the pro- 
ceeds from which were to be devoted to sustaining the 
hospital in Teocaltiche. Besides these establishments enum- 
erated, there exists in Guadalajara a school of arts and 
trades, which is not only an educational establishment, but 
also one of beneficence. 

The management is conferred to a special committee and 
has for its sustainment the proceeds of $36,000.00, invested 
at six per cent, and besides it has from the Government 
$750 monthly. In this establishment they maintain and 
educate 160 persons. 

Mexico. — Toluca, Jilotepec and Tlalnepantla, have 
hospitals subject to a benevolent committee, who have 
charge of the properties belonging to the institution, the 
proceeds of which, together with the subsidies given by the 
Government, are devoted to these institutions. 

In Toluca, the capital of the State, there is, besides a 
hospital, a poorhouse for boys and an asylum for girls. 

These establishments are sustained by $28,000.00 annu- 
ally and the returns from the property of the benevolent 
associations $80,000.00, besides $6,500.00, $3,000.00 and 
$800.00 left in the wills of private parties, to assist the 
poor in Atla, Camulco y San Felipe, Jocotitlan and Zina- 
catepec. 

In the hospital of Toluca they treat annually 800 sick. 

In the infirmary they educate 41 indoors and 100 outside, 
and, in the asylum, 27 girls indoors and 100 outdoors. 
Both of these establishments have besides pensioned pupils 
whose numbers vary considerably. 

Aguascalientes. — Six hundred sick are treated annu- 
ally in the hospital established in the town of the same 
name. Its annual expense is $6,000.00, which is defrayed 



462 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

by the State Government, city authorities and the pro- 
ceeds of the property of the institution, which are $50.00 
monthly. 

In the year 1883 there was inaugurated a pawnshop, 
with money furnished by the Government and several 
private parties, who let them have it at a rate of five per 
cent annually ; the proceeds of the pawnshop are not suffi- 
cient to cover the expenses, but the city and State Govern- 
ments furnish what is lacking. 

Oaxaca. — A society of ladies attend to the public benev- 
olent institutions of this State, having for this purpose 
branch establishments in Tehuantepec andJuchitan. The 
establishments named above are in Oaxaca, a hospital and 
an infirmary and a home of correction ; inYautepec a pest- 
house. 

The proceeds which the society controls cover the neces- 
sary expenses of the establishments mentioned above and 
are from $12,000.00 to $14,000.00, and with this small 
sum they are able to treat more than 2,000 sick in the 
hospitals, attend to 64 children in the infirmary, and in 
addition to this they have a department for mendicant and 
abandoned children in the same infirmary. 

The pest-house of Yautepec was established with the 
object of attending to strangers who might contract dis- 
eases on account of the bad hygienic conditions of the coun- 
try. The Government having learned the cause of so much 
sickness, it introduced better drainage to the cemeteries, 
and this at once caused considerable improvement in the 
public health. 

Tamaulipas. — In the ports of Tampico and Matamoros 
there are hospitals. In the first named they treat about 
1,000 sick annually, and in that of Matamoros about 300. 

The city authorities and the Government of the State 
furnish the necessary funds for sustaining these places. 

In the Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the State, there is 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 463 

not as yet a hospital, but they have already put aside var- 
ious sums for the erection of one. 

Zacatecas. — The State Governmeut sets aside $75,240 
to sustain benevolent establishments, which are two pub- 
lic hospitals, an asylum for boys, an asylum for the poor 
and a pawnshop. There is, besides, in Jerez or Ciudad 
Garcia another hospital. 

In the asylum for boys they maintain and educate 400 
boys, using for this purpose $40,000 annually. Annexed to 
this establishment is an asylum for girls, where they educate 
300 and whose expenses are $14,000 annually. These 
establishments have three pawnshops whose profits are 
devoted to the sustainment of these institutions, and a small 
college in Sombrerete, where they educate from 40 to 50 
children. 

The asylum for the poor is situated on the summit of the 
Bufa Mountain. The City Government donates the neces- 
sary sum for the sustaining of fifty or sixty poor. 

The Public Hospital has an endowment of $25,000 and 
they constantly treat 2,000 sick. 

At present they are building an edifice which will cost 
$300,000, to be used as a hospital. 



PRIVATE CHARITIES. 

VIII. There are in the Eepublic a number of charita- 
ble institutions dependent upon and sustained by private 
charity, of both a religious and secular character. Relative 
to the said Charities of the City of Mexico, we quote the 
report of Mr. Francisco Diaz de Leon, for February, 1893, 
as follows : 

Asylum for Mendicants. During the week of January 
29th, 1893, in this institution were 69 aged males and 96 
aged females; boys, 77, and girls, 71, a total of 313. 



464 



THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



The week of January 30th to February 5th entered the in- 
stitution three men, three women and two girls, and de- 
parted therefrom four men and four girls; remaining, 313. 
The average daily attendance at the school was 98 boys 
and 68 girls; attending the work rooms, 29 boys and 16 
girls. 

The Public Dromitory during same week gave shelter to 
1,065 men and 213 boys. At the Charity Establishment 
of Tacubaya, about four miles from the city of Mexico, 
were received 245 poor people and the children of the 
Charity Schools were fed 180 breakfasts and 186 dinners. 




Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 



INDIANS OF TEHUANTEPEC (OAXACA). 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 465 



CHAPTEE IY. 

HEALTH AND HYGIENE. 
SANITARY CONDITIONS OF THE MEXICAN REPUBLIC. 

I. There are still many persons who exaggerate the in- 
salubrity of the Mexican climate, although it is only fair 
to say that the number is being rapidly reduced. 

The diseases which are most prevalent in the Eepublic 
are not generally mortal, as for example the " Mai del 
Pinto," amongst the cutaneous diseases, intermittent fevers, 
proceeding from malaria, small-pox and dy sentry. Even 
typhus and pneumonia do not assume the same dangerous 
charaoter in the whole of the Eepublic, and in most parts 
they are treated with domestic remedies. 

The differences of climates and altitudes, as well as the 
diversity of soils, food, ways of living, etc., render it 
almost impossible to locate the prevalence of these diseases 
in geographical zones. Thus, we frequently find that after 
traveling only a short distance, of some twenty kilometres, 
we reach a physiological condition completely distinct from 
that which we have left, and with the change all evils per- 
taining to the latter disappear as if by enchantment. 

Typhus fever, which is so much spoken of by those per- 
sons who consider our territory so unhealthy, really does 
not cause the same amount of mortality that it does in other 
parts. Nor is it found with the same intensity in all classes 
of society. Typhus fever always follows an unclean con- 
dition, and for that reason in the ethiology of this disease, 
three principal causes have been pointed out in Mexico, viz. : 
1st. The aglomeration of large numbers of people in poorly 

30 



466 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

ventilated houses. 2d. Hunger, filth, and the other circum- 
stances that constitute the so-called physiological poverty. 
3d. The accumulation of animal refuse or excreta in a 
state of fermentation. 

Yellow fever is another of the bugbears with which for- 
eigners have been frightened. This disease did not 
originate in Veracruz, as is commonly said, but, according 
to Father Alegro, was brought to that port for the first 
time in the year 1699 by an English ship containing a con- 
signment of negro slaves. In 1725, according to Clavigero, 
yellow fever was as yet unknown in these countries. 

According to Doctor Domingo Orvafianos, the zone with- 
in which this disease is prevalent is limited to a compara- 
tively insignificant portion of our territory, and comprises 
the Canton of Veracruz in the State of that name, the 
district of Frontera in Tabasco, those of Carmen and Cam- 
peche in Campeche, and those of Unucuia, Progreso, 
Timax, Tizimin and Valladolid in Yucatan. 

Doctor Charles Heinemann, who has resided many years 
in Veracruz, is of the opinion that yellow fever cannot be 
considered as presenting ail the characterists of a true 
endemic disease, except in the following towns : Veracruz, 
Alvarado, Tlacotalpam, Laguna and Campeche. Apart 
from these localities, the disease rarely makes its appear- 
ance, and then only in an epidemical form. 

The above will show how unjustifiable is the alarm 
caused by those people, who, perhaps with evil intentions 
rather than with scientific knowledge, assert that yellow 
fever is a continuous menace against the lives of people 
immigrating to the country. 

Small-pox assumes a serious character only on rare occa- 
sions, and in certain specific localities : Malaria only causes 
a limited number of deaths, the greater part of which are 
amongst the very lowest class of our society ; and the same 
may be said of dysentery. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 467 

With respect to Pneumonia, it is only found in the cold 
regions of the country, and our physicians consider it one 
of the easiest diseases to treat, as it only becomes dangerous 
when it is complicated with typhus or other diseases of a 
similar character. 

From the above assertions, the following conclusions are 
reached : First. That the climate of Mexico is generally 
temperate. Second. That the climate varies within a very 
small extent of territory, rendering it exceedingly easy for 
the immigrant to find the climate which he desires ; and, 
Finally. That the prevailing diseases in this country are 
not of a sufficiently dangerous character to alarm any 
person, nor are they any worse than those found in other 
healthy localities of this planet. Consequently, it may be 
inferred that the sanitary conditions of Mexico are excep- 
tionally favorable. 

II. The development of the medical sciences, and 
especially that of hygiene, has, in Mexico, as in other 
countries, brought with it the urgent necessity for the 
creation of consulting bodies of specialists to whom has 
been intrusted the cure of the public health. This ex- 
plains the creation by the Government under General Santa 
Ana, and in conformity with a law promulgated in the 
year 1842, of the " Consejo Superior de Salubridad," 
or, in plain English, the "Chief Board of Health" of 
Mexico. 

The powers conceded to this body covered, in certain 
directions, fields entirely foreign to those usually occupied 
by a Board of Health : as, for instance, the arbitration in 
the matter of doctor's fees; the scrutiny of the theses sub- 
mitted by parties aspiring to the title of doctor here in 
Mexico, etc., so that the accumulation of duties foreign to 
its purpose, and the want of elements for the concen- 
trating of itself on the question of the public health, 
brought it to pass that this last branch was precisely the 



468 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 

least looked after, or, it may as well be said at once, 
entirely neglected. 

Already, however, in 1872, the Government was en- 
deavoring to give the board a more satisfactory organiza- 
tion and with this object in view it promulgated, under 
date of January 25th, a regulatory law in which the three 
following fundamental ideas were embodied: 

a. The imposing upon the board the combined functions 
of the care of the public health and the carrying out of the 
sanitary police regulations connected with the same, with- 
out granting other powers than those indispensable to the 
proper performance of said functions. 

b. The granting to the board the independence necessary 
for the fulfillment of its trust. 

c. The utilizing of its intelligence not merely in matters 
connected with the health of the city, and with the police 
regulations inseparable from the same (and having especial 
reference to the Federal District) but also in all matters in 
which the Federation might be interested; as, for instance, 
in the matter of quarantine, of sanitary cordons, of 
lazarettos, etc. 

There were included from the beginning, in the matters 
coming under the jurisdiction of the Board, the adminis- 
tering of vaccine matter, and the examination of the 
public women, matters which had already been turned over 
to the Government of the District. 

In order that this scientific body should possess the nec- 
essary independence for the fulfillment of its trust, its 
members were directly nominated by the Federal Executive 
which also reserved to itself the right of removing said 
members. To the balance of the authorities was conceded 
the simple right of consulting the Board on matters affect- 
ing, nearly or remotely, the public health. 

Upon the municipality, as most directly interested in the 
labors of the board, devolved the duty of administering to 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



469 



its pecuniary necessities ; but this turning out to be impos- 
sible of fulfillment by reason of the scanty resources at the 
disposal of said municipality, the General Government 
came to its aid, decreeing that there should be placed at its 
disposal for the support of the Board, fifteen per cent of a 
lottery granted to Mr. Guatimoc Hijar. 

The funds resulting from this arrangement, besides 
being insufficient, were also exceedingly uncertain, the lot- 
tery being the property of a private party; the result 
being that the Ministry of the Interior did, in 1873, call 
the attention of both Houses of Representatives to the ab- 
solute necessity of guaranteeing the existence of the Board 
and of furnishing it with the wherewithal for the carrying 
out of its mission, which could only be done by assigning 
to it special allowances out of the general budget. 

The Board originally occupied a ruinous portion of the 
hospital of San Andres ; it had neither library nor the 
necessary apparatus or instruments in its laboratory ; but 
the Government, when it issued the decree of 1872, sup- 
plied these wants, assigning to the board a roomy depart- 
ment in the School of Mines, placing at its disposal a 
library filled with the latest works on hygiene, and furnish- 
ing its laboratories with the instruments and supplies indis- 
pensable for chemical analysis and studies, and for the 
practice of medicine generally. 

In the same building was also established the General 
Vaccination Office. 

On the 20th of April of same year the Minister of the 
Interior gave his approval to the rules and regulations of 
the Board, drawn up by its members. 

In spite of the slender subsidy enjoyed by the Board 
($8,000 yearly) and of its very recent organization, it 
immediately undertook and carried out most important 
labors, as for instance that of the medical statistics; that 
of the rules and regulations for the medical men connected 



470 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

with the civil registry ; that of the inspection of food and 
drink ; of the regulations of cemeteries ; of inspection of 
factories, etc. 

The well-known philanthropist, Don Miguel Mufioz, has 
the honor of having introduced vaccination into Mexico. 
On various occasions the municipality arranged for the 
vaccination of the children of the city; on various others 
the Government of the District took the task upon itself ; 
and on others again, it was intrusted to private practi- 
tioners; the result being that for want of system in the 
application of the remedy it was impossible either to insure 
its proper distribution, or to obtain the statistics necessary 
for the perfection of the treatment and for the study of its 
effects when applied on a large scale. Meanwhile, the 
infant population was decimated by small-pox ; more than 
300 children died monthly from this scourge ; and the 
Government finally intrusted Doctor Munoz with the organ- 
ization of this important branch of the service. An 
Inspector General was appointed and other steps were taken 
of so energetic a nature that 14,500 persons were vaccin- 
ated in one year, the majority being children. The 
mortality due to small-pox very soon diminished, so much 
so that in one of the years following that of which we are 
speaking there were only registered thirteen victims of 
the plague in question. 

In colonial times public opinion was not sufficiently ad- 
vanced to consider the sanitary inspection of public women 
as one of those duties called for by the laws of public 
health. The Republican Government, on taking posses- 
sion, initiated certain measures calculated to combat the 
ravages made in said public health by venereal diseases, 
commissioning sundry medical men to make domiciliary 
visits to the prostitutes. Experience soon showed that 
this measure was inadequate, but the disturbed condition 
of public affairs prevented the organization of a sanitary 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



471 



inspection until the Government became consolidated. 
This department was then turned over to the district 
authorities, as regards its administrative side and to a com- 
mittee of doctors as regards its scientific side ; the Board 
of Health being charged with the duty of inspecting the 
results of the committee's labors. 

The sale of vaccine matter ; the fines imposed on recal- 
citrant and evasive prostitutes; the license paid by the 
same women, and a subsidy of $1,000 annually, granted 
by the Municipality, supplied the chief Board of Health in 
1875 (the period when the lottery which assigned 15 per 
cent to the Board became extinct), with $5,400 per annum, 
the General Government supplying, by charges to various 
accounts, the sum necessary to complete the $14,733 which 
the expenses of the Board called for. 

The Board, ever since the department of vaccination was 
confided to it, has made most laudable efforts to establish 
the habit of vaccination among the people, even going to the 
extent, in its desire to avail itself of all possible means, of 
encouraging the furnishing of private information regard- 
ing the birth of children ; a doctor being sent immediately 
on receipt of such information to apply the vaccine matter. 
Certain doctors were commissioned to visit periodically the 
towns in the district for the purpose of vaccinating the 
children, with the result that the epidemics of small-pox, so 
devastating in former years, have now entirely ceased. 

As regards the work of sanitation, it was not at once put 
under the control of the Board, the public women for 
instance being looked after by the doctors attached to the 
various police stations. 

The budget laws of the Republic put the expenses of vac- 
cinnation under a special heading, obliging the Government 
to make the Chief Board of Health entirely independent 
of the Charity Commissioners. One of the principal 
motives for this arrangement lies in the fact that the Board 



472 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

has the inspection of the establishments intrusted to the 
commissioners, which inspection would naturally amount 
to nothing, were the former under control of the latter. 
The board is now under the control of the Ministry of the 
.Interior, and the vaccination inspectorship has been 
abolished, its duties . being performed by the doctors 
attached to the police stations, or, in places outside of the 
capital, by doctors specially commissioned for the purpose. 

The Board is, and always has been, hard-working. In 
1879, just as soon as the means at its disposal and its re- 
cent organization permitted, it commenced a serious special 
study of typhus. In its capacity of a consulting board it 
studied also and at the same time the medical conditions of 
the capital; the adulteration of food and drink, and 
the epizootics and enzootics which attack animals, and 
especially cattle. It decided sundry questions in legal 
medicine submitted to it by the criminal courts, notably 
sundry cases of suicide by poisoning, a class which hap- 
pened to be just then pretty numerous, owing to the loose 
way in which poisons were being sold. 

In July, 1879, special regulations were issued in con- 
nection with vaccination, and the Sanitary Inspectorship 
came under exclusive control of the Board. This Inspect- 
orship took in during the year 1879-1880, $9,226, its ex- 
penses amounting to $8,373. The principal items of receipt 
consisted of $3,320 produced by the assignation houses ; 
$2,036 by the public houses of prostitution, and $2,563 by 
licenses granted to prostitutes. 

For convenience sake it was also arranged that the 
Board should be independent of the Charity Commission, 
that body having to exercise functions of a general nature, 
which it could not do were it to continue dependent on an 
institution entirely local. 

The Board was organized in a manner suited to the 
performance of the various functions iutrusted to it. It 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 473 

named special committees for each department, enabling 
it to compile tables of medical statistics. Among other 
important work it called the attention of the Government 
and the public to the great mortality amongst children, 
which reaches as high as 50 per cent (or 37 per cent of 
the entire mortality) between the time of birth and the 
age of twelve , and it drew up tabulated statements regard- 
ing the prevailing diseases, which enabled it to demonstrate 
that the gastro-intestinal class accounted for the greatest 
number of victims, 2,204 out of 4,577 deaths being attribut- 
able to the class in question. 

As the Statistical Department is of recent creation and 
its labors will have to be brought into intimate connection 
with those of the general statistics of the city and of the 
Eepublic, it is not possible as yet to draw from it any very 
exact results ; but there is no question as to the importance 
of even the approximate conclusions which it affords. 

In the matter of mortality the Board draws up its annual 
statistics in 8 tabulated statements, as follows : 

Mortality in General, under which heading comes sex 
and age, the last named being divided into : from birth 
to 1 year, from 1 to 3 years, 3 to 7, 7 to 12, 12 to 25, 25 
to 50, 50 to 70 and from 70 to 90 and over. 

Table of Mortality by Disti-icts. The City is divided 
into 8 large and 33 smaller districts, making it possible to 
determine the complaints which predominate in each one of 
them. 

Table of Deaths in Charitable Institutions, which are 
deducted from the general number of deaths in the district 
where they happen to be situated. 

Table of Deaths Arranged According to Callings, being 
a summary of the principal diseases. 

Thanks to these labors the Board has succeeded in estab- 
lishing, amongst other valuable conclusions, the following: 
that the cause of the great mortality amongst infants is 



474 THE EIGHES OF MEXICO 

the incompetence of persons acting as inidwives ; a generally 
prevailing practice of artificial bringing up, which would 
lessen were there a registry for wet-nurses under the im- 
mediate supervision of the chief Board of Health ; the bad 
quality of the milk consumed in the capital, much of it 
coming from cows affected with tuberculosis, and being 
also adulterated by the vendors ; and finally alcoholism in 
the parents, a most common vice amongst the lower 
classes. 

The average duration of life in the capital has also been 
fixed, it having been 24.5 in 1876, and having varied little 
since. 

The Sanitary Inspectorship has its offices in the Hospital 
Morelos. It is in charge of three medical men, a director 
and two assistants. Three registers are kept; one of the 
examinations made daily ; another of the women who go 
to the hospital to be cured ; and another called the book of 
histories, wherein are inscribed the names, antecedents, 
and more noteworthy personal circumstances of the fallen 
women who register. From this last book could be drawn 
interesting data for compiling the history of prostitution in 
Mexico, and studying its causes, chief amongst which are 
the bad treatment of orphans and the deficient education of 
women. 

Amongst the matters of general interest dealt with by 
the Board the following deserve special mention : 

Transportation or Dead Bodies. — The following 
regulations have received the approval of the Board : The 
transportation of the bodies of persons who have suc- 
cumbed to some infectious disease ; like typhus, typhoid 
fevers, small-pox, yellow fever, cholera, etc., etc., is 
strictly prohibited. When death is due to other causes the 
transportation of the body is permitted, provided cer- 
tain requisites determined by the Board of Health are com- 
plied with. The bodies of persons dying of yellow fever 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 475 

can only be transported by the trains to places 
which, on account of their altitude, are beyond the 
reach of infectiou. The bodies must be placed in a 
casket of lead, zinc or galvanized iron, the sides of 
which must be three millimeters thick; the casket 
will be filled with sawdust and sulphate of zinc 
or with a mixture of powdered charcoal and tan. 
This casket will be hermetically sealed and placed within 
another of wood, the sides of which must be at least three 
centimeters thick, and must be fastened with screws and 
nails. The coffin will be placed in a box-car which will be 
attached to the end of the train, and will not stop in any 
station, but will be taken directly to its destination, it being 
strictly prohibited to open the coffin. The railroad will 
have cars specially intended for this purpose which will be 
disinfected each time they are used and which will be kept 
in a separate deposit. Before carrying the body the rail- 
road must obtain a permit from the authorities and a 
medical certificate. If the body come from abroad it will 
only be received after the consul has certified that all these 
requisites have been complied with. 

Epidemics. — The Board has also drawn up a set of 
sanitary measures for the preventing of the entry of 
epidemics, whether by the coast ports or whether by the 
frontier cities of the Republic ; another set for the avoidance 
of the contamination of one interior town by another ; and 
yet another to check the advances of epidemics in towns 
already attacked. 

Just as soon as the Ministry of the Interior learns that 
any of the countries which are in communication with 
Mexican ports have been attacked by some epidemic, it 
advises the authorities in order that they may see to the 
carrying out of the measures of quarantine or sanitary 
cordon ordered after consultation with the Chief Board 
of Health. As, in 1885, this class of measures was 



476 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

had recourse to in order to stop the entry of cholera which 
had developed in some parts of Spain, Italy and France. 
At the beginning of the year in question the disease abated 
and the authorities and the Board then gave orders that only 
vessels corning from infected ports should be subjected to 
quarantine. The circular of July 26, 1885, containing 
instructions, was based upon the report presented by the 
Board on May 16th of the same year. 

Shortly afterwards the same body added to its report 
the classification of objects susceptible or not susceptible in 
the matter of carrying contagion, so that only in the case 
of the former should there be required a strict disinfection 
in the quarantine stations. The board urged upon the Gov- 
ernment in February of 1886, the desirability of keeping 
disinfecting stores in the quarantine stations, and defines 
the requisites which these should possess. 

The quarantine stations are kept up by the General 
Government, although really this duty appertains to the 
local government. It assigns, for example, $2,000 to the 
Bagdad station and $1,000 to the Acapulco station for the 
completion of the building in Koqueta ; it opened the new 
station in Tehuantepec, and took charge of the one on the 
island of Sacrificios, which had been placed at its disposal 
by the Municipality of Veracruz through the intervention 
of the Ministry of War. 

The very recent organization of the board and its labors 
made it advisable that the Federal Government should take 
charge of the department of public health throughout the 
Eepublic, leaving to the sanitary committees which at first 
had charge of the department in question, the putting into 
effect of the decrees of the chief Board of Health. 
Amongst other reasons that led to this arrangement may be 
enumerated the uniformity of action called for, whether in 
the direction of preventive measures, or of those intended 
to reduce the development of epidemics to a minimum, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 477 

the facilities at the disposal of the Government for obtain- 
ing technical advice from scientific notabilities and for 
acting upon and enforcing the recommendations made to it. 
According to the aforementioned law of 16th July, 1885, 
the preventive measures indicated by the chief Board of 
Health were as follows : 



QUARANTINE . 

Every vessel arriving at a Mexican port must be visited 
by the local Board of Health, and cannot commence its 
operations until authorized by said Board. Where there 
is no Board the inspection will be made by two or three 
medical men. 

The members of the Board, or the medical men, will 
examine the bill of health brought by the vessel, and will 
inform themselves as to the ports touched at by the vessel 
and the sanitary condition on board; also as to whether 
there have been or are any cases of sickness of more or 
less seriousness. 

When the vessel has touched at some infected port, or 
has come from one without any case of the epidemic having 
made its appearance on board, it will be placed for seven 
days under observation, always provided that the passage 
has lasted more then eight days ; if it has not lasted that 
long the vessel will be under observation for the number of 
days necessary to complete fifteen from the time of its 
leaving the infected port. 

Where cases of sickness have occurred on board, the 
passengers are subjected to ten days observation, and if 
there are actually sick people on board they can only be 
disembarked in ports where the quarantine station is well 
furnished with necessaries. The sick, upon convalescence, 
will be subjected to ten days observation. The clothes 
and movables on board the vessel shall be also disin- 



478 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

fected (and if it has brought sick people the vessel itself 
shall be disinfected) at the quarantine station, and in 
stoves heated to 110 degrees Centigrade, or by means of 
sulphuric acid. 

INSPECTION ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER AND IN COMMU- 
NICATION WITH GUATEMALA. 

In the case of an epidemic in the United States, the 
transit of passengers and goods will only be permitted by 
way of Matamoros, New Laredo, Piedras Negras, Paso del 
Norte and Nogales. At these points passengers will be 
examined and their clothes and baggage disinfected. 

The sanitary stations will be isolated from all habitations 
and will consist of a lazaretto for the sick, isolated in its 
turn from the other departments of the station ; also of the 
stove and of the disinfecting rooms. With a certificate 
issued by these sanitary stations, passengers, and the sick 
who have already been cured, can pass through to the 
frontier towns. 

Individuals who present only some of the symptoms of 
the epidemic can either return north to the States or be 
treated in the sanitary stations. The dead will be cremated 
and their clothes reduced to ashes. 

There will be in every sanitary station three doctors, two 
of whom will attend to the inspection of the passengers and 
the putting to them of such questions as may be considered 
necessary, while the other will, in the lazaretto, look after 
such as turn out to be sick. Where trains have come from 
infected points, or have touched at them, they will not be 
allowed to proceed to the towns, but passengers and freight 
will be transferred at the sanitary station, after having 
been properly disinfected, and the vehicles will be returned 
to the United States. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 479 

The disinfection will be carried out in the sanitary sta- 
tions by the same methods as are practiced in the ports. 

As regards Guatemala, all communication will be stopped 
with that Republic the moment any epidemic breaks out 
there. 



MEANS FOR PREVENTING THE INFECTING OF ONE TOWN IN 
THE REPUBLIC BY ANOTHER. 

The first towns invaded by an epidemic will be isolated 
from the rest of the Republic, provided they are self-sus- 
taining, and that their topographical situation and com- 
mercial relations admit of it. The isolation will be affected 
by means of a sanitary cordon at one league distant from 
the town, the crossing of which cordon by freight or pas- 
sengers shall be rigorously prevented. 



MEASURES FOR CHECKING THE RAVAGES OF THE DISEASE. 

The following have been prescribed by the chief Board 
of Health for enforcement in infected towns. 

The sewers shall be cleansed, refuse burnt, and streets, 
fountains and waterways kept in the highest state of clean- 
liness ; the inhabitants shall be urged to emigrate, the Gov- 
ernment will see that there is a sufficient stock of medicines, 
and there shall be established a preventive medical service 
and relief committees. The doctors attached to the service 
shall visit the suburbs to look after the cleanliness of same, 
and visit also the bouses of the poorer classes to see that 
they carry out the hygienic measures formulated by the 
Board. The Relief Committees will collect the sums de- 
voted to the poor, will make arrangements with the drug 
stores for the furnishing of medicines to the necessitous 
sick, will buy clothes, medicines and food for proper dis- 



480 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

tribution amongst the poor and will establish provisional 
hospitals. There shall be established also a nocturnal 
medical service at the police stations or at such other 
points as shall be considered convenient. This service shall 
be entirely free of charge to those who may avail them- 
selves of it. 

All large gatherings shall be carefully avoided ; the 
troops in barracks shall be distributed about as much as 
possible; crowding in jails shall be avoided, and the hours 
of attendance at the public schools shall be lessened. The 
markets shall be scrupulously inspected ; the sale of second- 
hand beds, bed-clothes and cast-off clothes shall be pre- 
vented ; work shall be stopped in all factories where organic 
materials easy of decomposition are used, and the sites for 
burying-grounds for the victims of the epidemic shall be 
chosen at a lonsj distance from towns. In the already 
existing burying-grounds a portion or place shall be set 
aside for said victims, and their graves shall have a depth 
of not less than two meters. 

There shall be a medical man in every cemetery to certify 
to the deaths. No religious ceremony shall be celebrated 
in the presence of the corpses, nor shall any corpse remain 
in a dwelling-house over twenty-four hours. 

Notice shall be given to the authorities by every doctor, 
manager, director, proprietor, factory owner, etc., of any 
case of cholera which shall present itself in the establish- 
ment under their charge. The authorities will see to it that 
there be furnished to families such assistance, hygienic 
instructions, medical treatment and medicines as they may 
stand in need of. 

Under no circumstances will the sick be permitted to 
feed in hotels, inns, colleges or any other edifice where 
crowding is inevitable. 

The law containing these provisions bears date July 16th, 
1885, and it also contains others relating to private persons, 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 481 

to the mode of disinfecting houses, to the care of the sick, 
preventive measures, etc. 

Disinfection. Reference has been made to the classifi- 
cation made by the Board of materials and merchandise 
which should be disinfected in the lazarettos and sanitary 
stations. This classification is the same as that prescribed 
by Art. 53 of the Regulations of the Maritime Sanitary 
Police iu France. 

According to this last classification, merchandise and 
other articles come under three headings: — 

Susceptible articles, requiring disinfection, comprise bag- 
gage and articles of personal use, rags, waste, hides, skins, 
feathers, bristles, animal remains, wools and raw silk. 

Less compromising articles, in whose case disinfection 
is optional, comprise cotton, linen and unmanufactured 
hemp. 

Unsusceptable articles, whose disinfection would be su- 
perfluous, comprise newly manufactured goods, grain and 
other alimentary substances, lumber, resins, ore and 
all merchandise and articles not included in the first class. 



THE SANITARY CODE. 

In 1886 the Chief Board of Health' undertook the for- 
mation of a Sanitary Code, which should comprise all the 
measures tending to hygienic uniformity, thoroughness, 
and good service, not only in the capital but in the entire 
Republic, and which should serve as a guide to the San- 
itary Boards and authorities in all matters in any way con- 
nected with the public health. Three years later, in 1889, 
the results of the Board's labors were presented to the 
Ministry of the Interior, and shortly afterwards the Cham- 
ber of Deputies adopted the Code with hardly any mod- 
ification, giving it the force of a law. This body of legis- 

31 



482 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

lation contains many excellent items which will undoubtedly 
have a most beneficial effect upon the general health of the 
Republic. 

HEALTH CONGRESS. 

The American Health Association which holds annual 
meetings in Charleston invited the Board of Health of 
Mexico to assist at the last of its reunions, an invitation 
which was accepted by the sending of two specialists, 
members of the last named body. 

One of the most distinguished members of the Board was 
commissioned by the Government to proceed to Berlin and 
there study the system of Dr. Koch for the treatment of 
tuberculosis, communicating the results here afterwards. 

In December of 1892 there met in Mexico a body of 
foreign medical men, Americans and Canadians, who were 
accorded an excellent reception in the capital of the Re- 
public and brilliant, ovations in most of the capitals of tlie 
States passed through by them on the way. The medical 
fraternity of Mexico were invited by their confreres to 
assist at their next meeting, which has already begun in the 
city of Chicago. 

SANITARY POLICE. 

III. In Mexico the Federal Executive has been charged 
with the duty of formulating, in conformity with the public 
convenience, the measures bearing on the public health, and 
the States Government in conjunction with the Boards 
of Health enforce said measures, and formulate and enforce 
such others as the circumstances of each locality call for. 

In the Federal District the Chief Board of Health is in 
charge of public hygiene, extending its influence over the 
rest of the Republic by means of branch establishments and 
through the State Boards. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



483 



On December 18th, 1889, the Board authorized the Ex- 
ecutive to issue the Sanitary Code already mentioned, and 
which had been drawn up by the Board and by the special 
committees appointed for that purpose, said Code being in 
force in the Federal District and Territories in the points 
affecting each, and in the entire Republic in the points 
affectino" sanitary matters connected with the maritime and 
frontier ports of entry, with the foreign relations of the 
Federation and those with its States, with the relations of 
said States to each other, and in short all sanitary matters 
of general interest. In the exercise of this authorization 
the = Executive issued on July 15th, 1891, the Sanitary Code 
which began to be in force on 1st August of same year. 
According to this law, the Sanitary Service of the 
Republic is in the hands of the Federal Executive, the 
Governors of States, and the administrative authorities and 
employes as defined by law generally. The Sanitary Ad- 
ministration, as regards its agents, is divided into Federal 
and Local. Under the first beading come the Minister of 
the Interior as supreme chief of the Department; the Chief 
Board of Health; the Health Boards of the ports and 
frontier towns; the Federal authorities and functionaries 
resident in the State and specially commissioned by the 
Minister of the Interior, and all sanitary agents specially 
appointed for any part of the Republic. 

Under the second come, in the States, those functionaries 
and authorities who make the private laws of same, with 
that liberty of legislating granted them by the Constitution. 
The Sanitary Aministration in the city of Mexico con- 
sists of the Minister of the Interior, the Government of 
the District, the Municipality, the Chief Board, the In- 
spectors of Markets, of street cleaning, etc., the Medical 
departments of the police stations and the Inspector of 
the same, the Sanitary Inspectors of the District, the con- 
sulting surgeon of the Civil Courts, the Directors and 



484 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

Surgeons of the Public Hospitals, and the Inspectors of 
the public women; in the Prefectures of the Federal Dis- 
trict, the Inspectors who are under the orders of the 
Prefect and Municipality ; and in the territories of Lower 
California and Tepic the Sanitary Inspectors under the 
orders respectively of the Jefes Politicos of La Paz, Todos 
Santos and Tepic, and these Inspectors and agents who 
may be appointed by the Municipalities, the Prefectures, 
and the Sub-Prefectures. 

THE CHIEF BOARD OF HEALTH. 

The chief Board of Health is composed of six sanitary 
physicians, of whom five are civil and one military; of a 
lawyer, a veterinary surgeon, a chemist, and an engineer* 
all of whom have votes ; and, besides, of the employes for 
the technical and special work intrusted to the Board. 

In the ports the Boards of Health are composed of a 
medical man who will officiate as president, of the captain 
of the port, and of such persons as the municipality of the 
place shall appoint, and the Governor of the State or Jefe 
Politico of the Territory shall accept. 

In the frontier towns the Boards of Health are composed 
like those of the ports, with the exception of that part which 
refers to the captain of the port. 

The President of the Eepublic, through the intervention 
of the Ministry of the Interior, has the right to appoint 
and dismiss freely the sanitary officials and agents, whether 
Federal or local, and whether belonging to the Federal 
District or to the Territories of Tepic and Lower Cali- 
fornia. 

SANITARY SERVICE IN THE PORTS. 

In connection with the sanitary service in the ports, it is 
provided that foreign yessels destined for ports of the 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS!.- 4S5 

Republic shall furnish themselves with l a certificate of 
health which shall be issued by the Mexican consuls, and 
for which two dollars shall be charged, and Mexican ves- 
sels leaving any port of the Republic bound for foreign 
parts shall carry the proper certificate and also a doctor, 
who shall be immediately responsible for the vessel. The 
certificates issued shall be as follows: • Glean, when no sick- 
ness of importance is about ; or suspicious and foul accord- 
ing to circumstances. Certificates issued abroad under any 
other heading, will be considered as coming under foul. 

Maritime quarantine is in order in case of Asiatic cholera, 
of yellow fever, or of any other sickness which may be 
qualified as alarming, and the quarantine is divided into 
strict and observation only. The existence of sick people 
on board during the voyage or at the time of arrival, calls 
for the former, and passengers, crew, baggage and 
merchandise must be purified in the lazaretto to which they 
may be transferred for purposes of disinfection. The lat- 
ter is called for by the mere fact of procedure from an in- 
fected or suspicious locality, or the having touched at some 
port in the same conditions, and consists in prohibiting free 
communication during the time that the incubation of the 
disease lasts, and in the disinfection of such clothing and 
other objects as may be considered needful. 

LAND QUARANTINE. 

Land quarantine and sanitary cordons shall be established 
in case of Asiatic cholera or other epidemics which come 
under the head of alarming, and are dealt with in specially 
provided places where the proper disinfection is carried out. 
To avoid the introduction across the frontier of foreign 
cattle or the remains of the same, which may be the means 
of transmitting epizootics to animals or sickness to human 
beings, it is provided that they shall come furnished with a 



486 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

certificate vised by the Mexican consul resident in the State 
whence the shipment is made, and there is, furthermore, 
places provided for a department of veterinary surgery in 
those on the frontier and in those ports where the importa- 
tion is largest. 

MEDICAL STATISTICS. 

The compiling of those medical statistics which include 
data regarding births, marriages, deaths, the movements of 
sick in the hospitals and of the infect o-contagious diseases, 
is intrusted to the general board of statistics and to the 
Federal Sanitary Officers, who collect data from all the 
hospitals in the .Republic and from all medical men whose 
duty it is to issue medical certificates of the deaths which 
occur in their practice, with the right to collect the corre- 
sponding fees. 

The compilation in the capital includes sanitary dispo- 
sitions in connection with schools and dwelling houses; 
with food and drink ; with churches, theaters and other 
places of reunion ; with the interior hygiene of factories, 
workshops, warehouses and other establishments which 
may be dangerous or inconvenient ; with the sales of medi- 
cines and other substances of industrial use in apothecary 
shops, drugstores and other similar establishments ;• with 
the practice of medicine in its different branches; with 
inhumation, exhumation and transportation of dead bodies; 
with all infectious and contagious diseases ; with epizootics 
and the sanitary policing of animals; with dairies, 
slaughter-houses, and meat from outside the capital; with 
markets, refuse-heaps, and public works which affect 
hygiene. The Sanitary Administration in other parts of 
the Federal District and in the Territories establishes 
identical dispositions which are carried into effect as far as 
the elements at hand will permit. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 487 



DRAINAGE OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 

IV. In the Valley of Mexico, and by consequence in the 
capital of the Republic, the public health is intimately con- 
nected with the drainage of this locality, which has been 
going on ever since colonial times. 

The Federal District is situated in the southern portion of 
the lands known as the " Valley of Mexico," and is limited 
to the southwest and west by sundry mountains ; contains 
within its area a part of the great lake of Texcoco, into 
which flows on its western side and by means of canals, the 
foul water from Mexico, Tacubaya, Mixcoac, San Angel, 
Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco and other towns. The bottom of 
this lake forms the lowest level of the valley, so that there 
accumulate in it all the refuse waters which, spreading over 
its wide surface, produce noxious emanations affecting the 
health of the inhabitants of the Federal District. There 
have been times when the atmosphere has been so charged 
with miasma as to cause a sickening odor perceptible all 
over the capital ; but even when this is not the case the 
influence of the lake is none the less pernicious ; witness 
the prevailing diseases in the exceptionally healthy climate 
of the capital. In addition to the evils described this lake 
is a continual menace to Mexico, because the level of the 
city being only forty centimeters above that of the lake, 
the currents in the time of heavy rains take the direction of 
the former and cause inundations accompanied by serious 
loss and an increase of sickness. 

The projected drainage works tend to afford an outlet 
for the excess waters of the lake outside the valley, in 
which there also exist the lake of Xochimilco, with an area 
of thirty-six kilometers and 480 meters square, and that of 
Chalco, with twenty-five square kilometers. These two 
lakes are separated by a causeway which unites the towns 



488 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

of Tlaltenango and Tulyehualco ; their waters are sweet, in 
contradistinction to ^hose of Lake Texcoco, which are salt. 

From the times of Moctezuma I, or Ylhuicamina, up to 
1603, there were six great inundations in the capital which 
disastrously affected life and property. In 1607 the Viceroy 
Montes Claros made extensive repairs in the causeways, 
dikes, sluices, etc., to avoid inundations, but no general 
work was projected until the Viceroyship of Don Luis de 
Velazco, who called together the most skilled men he could 
find for consultation as to the best plan for completely 
doing away with the inundation. It was decided on that 
occasion to drain the lake of San Cristobal by means of 
the canal of Huehuetoca, as is recorded in a Governmental 
Act of 23d of October,^ 1607. The work was directed by 
that able mathematician, Juan Sanchez, a Jesuit priest, and 
was carried out by the famous hydrographer, Enrico Mar- 
tinez. The Viceroy Velazco continued on his own account 
this important work of drainage on the 28th of November, 
1607. 

From that time to the present every Government has 
dedicated considerable sums of money to both the con- 
servation of the work already begun and to the momentary 
defense of the city against the overflows of Texcoco. 
These last labors do not completely meet the evil, although 
the municipality of the capital has had to expend on 
them some thousands of dollars yearly. 

The real beginning of this work may be said to date 
from 1885, in which year a plan was formulated by the 
local assembly in conjunction with the Government for con- 
tinuing the general work of drainage, to cost, according to 
the calculations of Engineer Luis Espinosa, $4,000,000.00. 
For the carrying out of the work there was created a 
board composed of property owners, charged with the 
organization and direction of the same, and with the 
administration of the funds devoted to the purpose. This 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 439 

board was given complete power, it being merely required 
to adjust the work to the plans approved by the Secretary- 
ship of Fomentation. The Municipal Treasury was unable, 
unassisted, to provide the sum necessary for the work, and 
the General Government consequently came to its assistance 
with $200,000 yearly. To furnish this sum to the Munic- 
ipality, the tolls ceded to it by the General Government 
for the local needs of the city were, by an act of the 11th 
December, 1885, increased from twenty-eight to forty per 
cent. The Municipality for its part also sets aside the sum 
of $200,000 for the drainage works. 

On the second January, 1886, there were issued the 
rules and regulations of the Board of Management of the 
works. This last consists of five property owners with 
votes, and five substitutes appointed directly by the Execu> 
tive, which reserves to itself the right of removal. The 
rules and regulations defined the powers and attributes of 
the Board, and the mode of administering and distributing 
the funds. They provide that the responsibility of adminis- 
tration shall fall personally upon the city collector, and on 
the accountant and cashier of the same office, jointly and 
severally. On the first of January, 1886, the said office 
commenced to receive the sums which by the aforemen- 
tioned law of December 11th, belonged to it ; but it did not 
immediately hand them to the Managing Board already 
appointed, because there had been presented to the Depart- 
ment of Colonization, Industry and Commerce, a new plan 
of drainage, and the Government appointed a committee of 
engineers to decide as to its merits; the Board had, conse- 
quently, to await the decision of the above Department, and 
up to June of 1886 it limited itself to preserving the works 
of Tequisquiac, and laid out a canal along the eastern 
limits of the city, known as San Lazaro, to the Lake of 
San Cristobal, this piece of work being common to both 
the original drainage plan and the one which was being 



490 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

examined. This last having been rejected, the Department 
of Colonization, Industry and Commerce determined that 
the works should continue in conformity with the plan 
approved on September 30, 1879, but with some modifica- 
tions. The plan in question divides the work of drainage 
into three parts, namely, the cut of Tequisquiac, the 
tunnel of Zumpango, and the grand canal through which 
the waters will run when they have once left the valley of 
Mexico. 

The Board of Directors having in charge the drainage of 
the valley, has just published a report of the work which 
has been accomplished in the direction up to October 1st, 
1892. 

Accompanying same are four explanatory plans ; the 
first is a hydrographic chart of the valley of Mexico, con- 
taining a sketch of the grand canal and tunnel for the 
drainage of same, in comformity with the projected plan 
for the execution of this work ; the second shows the 
longitudinal profile of the Tequixquiac tunnel ; the third, the 
longitudinal profile of the grand canal; and the fourth, a 
section of the tunnel. 

This report contains a hasty summary of the various 
projects formulated for the accomplishment of this great 
work up to the present time, which is now in charge of a 
Board of Directors appointed by the President of the 
Kepublic. 

The present plan of drainage is designed to meet two 
distinct objects : 1st, to receive the dirty waters and the 
sewage of the city of Mexico and conduct same beyond the 
valley; 2d, to govern the waters in the entire valley, and 
conduct outside the limits of same, when necessity requires, 
those which might cause damage therein. 

This plan, as will be seen by the hydrographic chart at- 
tached to the report, is divided into three parts : a canal 
which starts from the San Lazaro gate, and whose total 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 4 ^ 

lomntude is 47 kilometers, 580 meters, terminating near 
the'town of Zumpango, where the tunnel beg.ns, extend- 
ing northward in a continuous line, for some 10,021 meters, 
79 centimeters, terminating in a discharge outlet which ex 
tends for 3 kilometers and possesses a mean depth ot lb 

xx\ pi" PI'S 

Shortly after taking charge of these works, the Board of 
Directors of the drainage of the valley, gave the contract 
for the completion of same to Messrs. Read & Campbell, 
who were finally obliged to rescind their contract at the 
beginning of the present year, after having invested con- 
sitferable sums of money in the work. 

This firm has continued to lend their aid to the work up 
to the present moment, but only in the capacity of managers 
aud under the direction of the Board. 

The actual condition of the enterprise at the end of last 
September, was as follows : 

Grand Canal. 

.... 6,666,000c. m 



Total excavation 

Tunnel. 
The galleries, excepting Nos. 8 and 11, are already com- 
pleted. 

The faces of the advance galleries reach an extension of 6,200 m. 

The portion already furnished 

DRAINAGE AND SEWERS. 

With the general works for the drainage of the valley are 
intimately linked those of the draining and cleansing of 
the city of Mexico, within its own limits. Up to date its 
system of sewers has been very imperfect, rendering 
difficult the passage of the sewage to the canal which con- 
ducts same to Texcoco. Important works have already been 



492 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

commenced, however, to obviate this drawback. ■ On the 
2d of May, 1888, the Municipality authorized its finance 
and public works committees to arrange for the establish- 
ment of pumps, with their motors, which should perma- 
nently work at the drainage of the city. The city engineer 
formulated a plan which was accepted by the committees, 
and there were at once ordered from London four centri- 
fugal pumps with a horizontal discharge, four engines, 
two boilers, and such other machinery as was deemed 
necessary. 

On the site fixed upon for the setting up of the engines 
a deep excavation was made for the laying of foundations 
with that solidity which the weight of the pumps called 
for, and the necessary masonry work was executed. The 
spot chosen for their establishment was close to the canal 
of San Lazaro, east of the city, and there a dike was con- 
structed so that the pumps might discharge their waters 
into those of the canal itself, thereby giving a more rapid 
flow to these last. Each pump takes the water for its 
discharge from a sewer into which the drains of the city 
empty. 

The principal object of the setting up of these pumps 
was the immediate establishment of a system of drainage 
for the city which should harmonize with the general drain- 
age of the valley. One of the results has been an imme- 
diate improvement in the hygienic conditions of said city, 
and a lessening of partial inundations, formerly so fre- 
quent, and due to the bad system of sewers, and to their 
complete absence in certain streets. The establishment 
of these pumps cost $110,564.24. It has permitted the 
construction of those large collecting sewers which are to 
cross the city from east to west and form connection with 
the Tequisquiac tunnel as also with the Grand Canal, which 
will serve for the direct, removal of the water. 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 493 



CEMETERIES. 

The law of 30th January, 1857, provided that all the 
cemeteries of the Kepublic should come under the care and 
management of the civil authorities, no interference with 
them being permitted to the priest of any religion. 

The old practice of the Catholic clergy of burying the 
dead in the atri6, and even in the interior of the churches, 
was abolished. 

In virtue of these resolutions an active watch is kept 
over the cemeteries, as the laws of hygiene demand. 



494 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 



CHAPTEK Y. 



PUBLIC SECURITY. 



I. As a result of a long and sad revolutionary epoch, of 
a period pregnant with political reconstruction, the social 
elements of the lower strata of society were, judging from 
the stand-point of civilization, at a very low ebb: lack of 
order, immorality, in fact, crime was in Mexico almost the 
rule of the day, and this not alone on the highways, but 
even in some of the largest cities. 

The stability of the political institutions and the advent 
of the era of peace, established a period of reconstruction 
which, naturally, was the beginning of the reform of cus- 
toms protecting the morality and persecuting vices and 
crimes. 

Two periods are especially marked out during this new 
epoch which is almost coincident with the triumph of the 
Tuxtepec revolution. In the first all efforts were devoted 
to the preservation of order in the cities ; in the second, 
which may be termed the railway period, every attention 
was directed to securing safety on the public road. The 
first brought with it the reform of the antiquated police 
system in which the men used to be drawn from the lowest 
classes of society and who were almost exclusively armed 
with the old Spanish sabre. In their place was substituted 
the city police in accordance with European methods of 
management. In the second, during which decided steps 
were taken to clear the highways of bandits, highwaymen, 
robbers and assassins, the rural police and excisemen 
were constituted. To both of these bodies Mexico owes 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 495 

great benefits. The duties of the latter were limited 
almost exclusively to guarding against the passing of con- 
traband articles and to protecting the railway traffic. 

Thanks to these measures the Secretary of the Interior 
was in 1886 able to say as follows: "It is satisfac- 
tory to be able to assure you that for many years 
the atrocious crime of highway robbery has entirely 
ceased, and that there are no longer arty public robbers on 
the road, as was the case formerly when they were the 
constant terror of our highways. It is necessary, however, 
to point out, although it is with pain I do so, that in the 
beginning, immediately after the establishment of our 
great railroads, attacks were made under a new form more 
cruel and atrocious than ever. The robbers used every 
means to throw the train off the line, in order that when 
this was once done, they might possess themselves of the 
baggage, merchandise, etc." Mr. Romero Rubio spoke 
thus upon the occasion of a recent wreckage and robbery 
on the Central Railway, and which caused great indigna- 
tion in Mexico among all classes of society. This indigna- 
tion found vent in the application of article 29 of the 
Constitution, which sets forth, that, in cases of invasion, of 
grave disturbances of the public peace or any others 
which greatly endanger society or place it in conflict, the 
competent authorities may suspend the guarantees which 
the Constitution grants, with the exception of those 
which secure life to a man. With this as its groundwork, 
the terrible decree of the 17th of May, 1886, was sent 
forth, which struck terror into all evil-doers and utterly 
did away with railway robbers. 

The energy with which Mexico proceeds against robbers 
may be seen from the following extract from the law 
referred to : " Article 1. The guarantee granted in part of 
article 13, the first part of article 19, and articles 20 and 
21 of the Federal Constitution are suspended for road 



496 THE RICHES OP MEXICO 

robbers exclusively. Art. 2. Road robbers are: I. Those 
with whom the intention of stopping trains on a 
public road or with the intention of robbing the passengers 
or the goods which are being conveyed therein, take 
away, destroy, change or burn the sleepers, rails, 
screws, switches, or the plants which secure them, 
bridges, tunnels, platforms, buildings or any other work 
belonging to a railway. II. Those who with the said 
intention cut or interrupt communications by destroy- 
ing, burning or rendering useless the posts, wires 
and apparatus used in the railway telegraphic system. 
III. Those who with the purpose of committing a mis- 
demeanor against persons of property, uncouple, render 
useless or destroy the locomotives, wagons, tenders or 
other transport carriages on a railway, or place on the road 
hindrances or obstacles which would prevent the passage of 
trains or throw them off the line. IV. Those who, on the 
public roads, whether these be highways or railways, attack 
travelers or passengers with the intention of robbing, 
wounding, killing or causing any other damage either 
to goods or person. Art. 3. The robbers comprised 
in numbers I, II and HI of the preceding article 
if caught in the act shall suffer the punishment of 
death, without farther trial or proceeding ', than the mere 
drawing up of a record by the chief of the appre- 
hending force, in which record shall be set forth the fact 
that they were taken in the act, and the identification of 
their persons. Those who are not caught in the very act but 
are included in any of the four divisions of article 2 of this 
law shall be summarily and verbally tried by the authorities 
whose agents have made the apprehension, whether such 
authorities be the political ones of the Districts or the 
Military Commanders of the Federation or of the States. 
The duration of the trial can in no case exceed the peremp- 
tory and unprorogable time of fifteen days during which 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 



497 



the accused can present their proofs and defenses which are 
their rights. Within the said period sentence of death 
shall be pronounced if the crime be proved, and if the case 
fall under numbers I, II or III of the above mentioned 
article 2, or under number IV of same and if from the act 
death or a grievous wound has resulted. When neither 
death nor a grievous wound has been the result in the case 
of number IV then a penalty of 10 years -imprisonment 
shall be imposed. 

This has not been the only occasion on which in Mexico 
the suspension of guarantees was proclaimed against the 
enemies of society and the disturbers of public order. In 
1869, owing to the alarming spread of brigandage, Mr. 
Juarez was forced to issue a decree on the 12th of April, 
and later on for like reasons were sent forth in succession 
the decrees dated the 12th of March, 1871, which was also 
promulgated by Mr. Juarez, the 3d of May, 1873, the 28th 
of April, 1875, and the 9th of May, 1876, all issued by Mr. 
Lerdo de Tejada. 



THE RURAL POLICE. 



II. In order that the action of the police might be ex- 
tended to the surveillance of the greater part of the national 
highways and especially to those not frequented by travel- 
ers and on which the merchandise traffic is greatest, laws 
were made on the 5th of May, 1861, and the 21st of Jan- 
uary, 1867, which created and fitted out a body of rural 
police. From the year 1867 the Government made use of 
the light-armed troops which had fought for the Eepublic 
and formed from them bodies of police in order to clear 
the country of the robbers and other bandits which the 
leno-thy struggle against French intervention had left as a 
legacy to the Nation. The different bodies of rural police 
which have been organized, one after another have been 



32 



498 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

called by various names, as the Guard of Commerce, the 
Guard of Mexico, the Third Body of Horse Carbineers, the 
Guard of Tepegi del Rio, the Fixed Squadron of Public 
Security of Tepic, etc. These all rendered important serv- 
ices to the Union Government in the campaign against 
invaders and traitors and in the revolutionary movements 
which have taken place in the various States of the Repub- 
lic. When peace was once firmly established, it fulfilled 
its duties as country police with all due regularity and 
order. 

The men who form this body are enlisted as volunteers 
by a perfect contract, the fulfillment of which the Govern- 
ment guarantees and which is made upon certain determined 
conditions. The body is notable for its spirit of honor and 
its competence as well as for its discipline, active and 
timely watchfulness in the discharge of its duties and has 
now come to be regarded as one of the institutions of the 
public administration of Government. Since the 1st of 
April, 1869, a General Inspectorship has been placed over 
the rural bodies of police. By this means the Department 
of the Interior communicates orders to the chiefs of the 
corps and watches over their organization and good service. 
A regulation issued on the 24th of June, 1880, curtailed 
the powers of inspection and laid upon the Interior De- 
partment, all duties relating to contracts for the pur- 
chase of arms, horses and accoutrements. The result was 
that the inspectorship came to form a section of the said 
Department. The vigilance of the Federal rural police 
extends not merely to the Federal District, but also to the 
high-roads which communicate with the various States, to 
the roads that join these high-roads, and even to the 
capitals of the States and their districts. This police body 
is ever ready with its assistance in those places where its 
presence is needed, for the Governors are constantly com- 
municating to the Interior Department all events which may 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 499 

give rise to any considerable disorder, so that they may at 
once secure the co-operation of the rural forces. 

THE CITY POLICE OF MEXICO. 

III. Organization. The police body is under the direc- 
tion of a special office, which again, is under the charge of 
a functionary called the General Inspector of Police, who in 
his turn is subject to the District Government. The organi- 
zation of the police is as follows : 1 general inspector, 1 
secretary, 8 chiefs with their respective secretaries and em- 
ployes to correspond with the eight divisions into which the 
city is divided ; 8 doctors with their respective practition 
ers for the same divisions ; 1 faculty inspector for the 
service of the commissaries ; 1 commander of reserved 
police and special agents. There are also inspectors' assist- 
ants, clerks, employes, subalterns, etc. ; a body of foot and 
horse police with its respective commanders, officers, etc. 

For police duty the city of Mexico is at present divided 
into eight divisions which are subaltern police stations. 
Each one of them has at its head an inspector or chief and 
in addition a doctor and practitioner. The inspectors settle 
the cases which are clearly evident of any misdemeanor or 
crime which comes under their notice. But in more im- 
portant cases they advise the District Government and send 
such cases on to it. They also send on the depositions to 
the proper judges, and thus in almost every case they take 
the first steps and make the first arrangements for the trial. 
Each special commissary section has for its medical service 
a doctor and three practitioners with various assistants who 
are meritorious and pupils of the School of Medicine. Each 
medical section is supplied with three stretchers made of 
iron and very light, with which to carry the wounded to the 
police station, where the wounds are dressed, and from 
thence the injured are taken to their destination within the 



500 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 

space of three hours. It has also a well supplied case of 
surgical instruments and the proper apparatus and imple- 
ments for doctors. The Listerian method of treatment has 
been unanimously adopted in the eight medical sections. 
The doctors attend their sections from 11 to 12 o'clock 
in the morning and from 6 to 7 in the evening, in order 
that they may visit extraordinary cases and attend to 
the business of their stations, to which they must also 
repair whenever they are required by the commissary. 
There are always in the sections a practitioner on guard 
and another as a reserve, who are relieved every 24 hours, 
beginning at 7 o'clock at night to give assistance in cases 
of accidents. The practitioners of each section are always 
present during the early hours of the night. The com- 
missary doctors send every day duplicate and detailed 
accounts to the visiting inspector and to the District Gov- 
ernment, in which are set forth, the name of the wounded 
person, the kind of wound, the time at which he entered 
the Commissary office, and was taken cured to the proper 
Commissary or sent to the hospital, if the case was seri- 
ous, the mode of cure, and services lent, certificates of 
deaths that have taken place, of the sick who have asked 
admission into the hospital. These doctors hold a meeting 
every eight days under the presidency of the Visiting 
Inspector in order to discuss matters that have come under 
their notice, and to propose to the Government the improve- 
ments that may be found necessary to introduce into the 
service. 

As has been already said, there is an Inspector over the 
Medical Section of the Commissary whose duty it is to 
see to the punctual discharge of all their duties and to 
authorize the resolutions proposed for the improvement of 
the service. 

The foot police perform the police service of the city 
and are made up of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 8 com- 



AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 501 

manders, 82 officers, 1,800 policemen and 130 assistants. 
The body is being continually improved, drilled, and 
disciplined. 

The rule for the foot police, that is to say their duties 
regarding the apprehension of criminals, their watchfulness 
over the sanitary arrangements, health and interests of 
their beat, their assistance to the citizen, and particularly 
to the helpless, the sick or the traveler, are all laid down 
in the "Advices," which are properly and duly imparted 
to them and according to which they must at present act. 

The mounted police consist of 350 men who are divided 
into companies. For their military drill there is an 
academy established, attended to by corporals and sergeants, 
and for their instruction as troopers there is a practical 
school of teaching established in their own barracks. 

There is established in Mexico at the present day, as has 
been said at the beginning, an excellently organized force of 
'police for the prevention of crime, and which renders very 
useful services to society. It is commonly called the re- 
serve, and exercises a constant watchfulness over suspicious 
persons and undertakes delicate tasks in which its members 
avoid the espionage upon their acts to which the ordinary 
police- are liable, inasmuch as these latter wear their uni- 
forms and are in all cases easily recognized. The men of 
this body are especially suited for their duties owing to 
their intimate knowledge of the locality, and the persons 
their antecedents, intelligence and honest} 7 . Such is, in 
short, the organization of the police of Mexico City, which 
serves as a model for the organization of those in the ma- 
jority of the State capitals and large cities of the Union. 



°-<e>^ 



502 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 



Before passing to the second part of this work where we 
will display the sketch of the riches of our productions, 
namely, industry, commerce, mining and agriculture, we 
must duly thank Mr. Ireneo Paz, one of the most enlight- 
ened litterateur and scientific men of Mexico, for his 
valuable assistance in the performing of this work. We 
are in debt to Mr. Paz for much interesting data concern- 
ing the productions of our Country. That undoubtedly 
will prove very useful for those that desire to know the 
productive facilities of our territory and invest in Mexican 

enterprises. 

The Author. 



IKDEX. 503 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



BOOK I. 
PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 

PREFACE. 

PAGE 

I. Mexico and Her Revolutions 7 

II. Era of Peace 10 

CHAPTER I. 

Department op Foreign Affairs. 

I. The Existent Treaties before the French Intervention 12 

II. Frontier Matters — Agreements relative to Boundary-lines 
With the United States — Agreements relative to the Boun- 
daries of Guatemala 14 

III. Commercial Treaties — Norway and Sweden — France — 
Great Britain — The Japanese Empire — Equator — The Do- 
minican Republic — Italy — United States . . 28 

IV. Extradition Treaties — The United States — Belgium — 
Spain — Great Britain. , 36 

V . International Agreements. — Telegraphic Arrangement be- 
tween Mexico and Guatemala — International Agreement 

relative to the Publication of Custom House Duties 40 

VI. Claims — United States — Spain — Guatemala — Economic 

Regulations 41 

VII. Mexican Diplomatic Body — Diplomatic Representations — 

Consular Agencies 46 

CHAPTER II. 

Interior Department 

I. General Works.... 55 

II. Postal Service. — Written Correspondence — Periodical Pub- 
lications — All prints not embraced in the Former Classes — 
Diverse Matter — New Postal Code — Economic Regulations. 55 
III. Universal Postal Union — Postal Congress of Lisbon 64 



504 INDEX. 



IV. Postal Conventions — United States — French Eepublic — ■ 

Great Britain and Ireland — German Empire 68 

V. Mail Steamers — Imperial German Mail Harrison Line — 
New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company — General 
French Company of Steam Transports — General Transatlan- 
tic Company — West Indian and Pacific Steamship Company 
— Transatlantic Steamship Company of Barcelona — Harrison 
Steamship Line — New York, Mobile and Mexico Steamship 
Company — Line of Steamers between Progreso, New Orleans 
and New York — Line of Mr. Joaquin Redo — Steamship 
Company of the Pacific Coast — Line of Steamers of Mr. 
James N. Porch — Line of Mr. Eobert R. Symon — Line of 
Mr. Manuel Romero combined with the Steamers of the Span- 
ish Transatlantic Company — Pacific Mail Company — Mexi- 
can Company of Navigation of the River Grijalva — Company 
of Navigation on the Rivers of -Sotavento of Veracruz 70 

VI. Postal Statistics , 79 

VII. Conclusion 83 

CHAPTER III. 
Department op Justice. 

I. Federal Juridical Power — Supreme Court — Circuit Courts 

and District Judicatures 85 

II. Right of Habeas Corpus (Ley de Amparo) 89 

III. Code of Proceedings in the Federal Jurisdiction 91 

IV. Code of Commerce 91 

V. Civil Code and its Code of Proceedings . 93 

VI. Penal Code and its Code of Proceedings 95 

CHAPTER IV. 

Department op Colonization, Industry and Commerce. 

I. Great Impulse to the Affairs of this Department — Geography — 

Geographical Exploring Committee 96 

II. Department of Natural History 102 

III. Statistics — General Management of the Bureau of Statistics. . 105 

IV. Cartography 113 

V. Observatories — The Central Magnetic Meteorological Obser- 
vatory — The Meteorological Astronomical Observatory of 
Mazatlan — The National Astronomical Observatory of Ta- 
cubaya *— The Central Astronomical Observatory 116 

VI. Public Monuments — Monument of Columbus — Hypso- 
graphic Monument — Monument to Cuauthemoc — Monu- 
ment of Chapultepec . .... 132 



INDEX. 505 

PAGE 

VII. Weights and Measures — Contracts Relative to Weights and 

Measures — The International Metric Convention.. . 140 

VIII. Mexican National Currency > 147 

IX. Exhibitions — Exhibition of Philadelphia — The Exhibitions 

of New Orleans : Paris exhibition 155 

X. National Exhibitions. — General Exhibition of the Industry 
of Mexico — The National Exhibition of Mexico of the year 
1875 — The Merida Exhibition — The Puebla Exhibition — 
The Toluca Exhibition — Monterrey Industrial Exhibition — 
The Queretaro Exhibition — Guadalajara Exhibition — Arti- 
cles Awarded Prizes. — Commercial Museum of Guadalajara 163 

CHAPTER V. 

Department op Public Works. , 

I. The New Secretaryship. — The law of May 8th, 1891 — Begin 
its labors in the month of July, 1891 170 

CHAPTER VI. 

Treasury and Public Credit Department. 

I. The Public Debt 172 

II. Loans ] 75 

III. Bailroad Debt 176 

IV. National Debt 180 

V. Actual Condition of the Public Treasury ' , 182 

VI. Mexico Revenues and Expenditures 184 

CHAPTER VII. 
War Department. 

I. Work of Organization 186 

II. General Ordinance. — Recruiting — Recruits — Army Disburse- 
ments — Term of Service — Generals — Retirement — Pro- 
motion — Morality , 189 

III. Organization of the War Department. — General Organiza- 
tion of the Army — The Special Body of the Staff — Body 
of Engineers and Military College — Body of Artillery — 
Establishments for making War Materials — Military 
Schools — Infantry — Cavalry — Military Medical Body — 
Medical Military Practice School — The Police Body of the 
Army — National Battalion of Invalids — The Reserve of 
Commanders and Officers — Military Tribunals and Police.. 198 

IV. Military Tribunal their Organization and Competency. — The 
Court of Inquiry — Military Judicial Police — Crimes, Mis- 
demeanors and Penalty . . 226 



506 INDEX. 

PAGE 

V. Latest Changes in the Code of Military Justice — Tribu- 

nals — Of Appeals — Of Penalties 236 

VI. National Navy and Organization Works — The present Ad- 
ministration of the Navy — The National Fleet 240 

VII. The Standing Army 249 



BOOK II. 
GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION AND POPULATION. 

CHAPTER I. 

Geographical Description of Mexico. 

I. Situation and boundaries 253 

II. Mountain System — Valleys — Elevation of the principal 
mountains 256 

III. Geological Formation — Volcanoes 259 

IV. Geological Commission of Mexico 263 

V. Natural Wonders — "Barranca de las tres Penas " — Falls 

of Juanacatlan — Falls of Regla — Grotto of Cacahuamilpa — 

Geysers of " San Andres " and "Cuescomate." 264 

VI. Hydrographic System — Rivers — Lakes — Temperature of 

Different Waters of Mexico 265 

VII. Climate — Temperature and Barometric Pressure — Hot, 
Temperate and Cold Lands — Mean Temperature of the 
Three Zones — Humidity — Rains — Winds — Humidity of the 
Winds in the Valley of Mexico — Temperature of the Winds. 267 
VIII. Meteorological Observations — General Summary 276 



CHAPTER II. 
The States. 

I. Political Division. — Territorial Extension — Astronomical 
position of the capitals - 277 



CHAPTER III. 
Population and Races. 

I. Beginning of the Mexican Civilisation. — Ancient civiliza- 
tion — Ruins — Immigrations — Ancient Monuments 282 

II. Inhabitants of Anahuac — Statistics 286 

III. Population of the States. — Population of the principal 

cities — Density of Population ... 288 



INDEX. 507 

PAGE 

IV. Predominant Races. — The Indian in different social strata — 
His road to civilization and progress — The Spanish 
American 295 

V. Etnographic Description. — Spaniard residents in Mexico 297 

CHAPTER IV. 

Immigration and Colonization. 

I. Primary Laws 302 

II. Laics in Force Governing Immigration — Decree of 15th 

December, 1883 — Rights and duties of immigrants 305 

Foreigners and Naturalization. — Expatriation — Conditions for 
naturalization in the Republic — Certificates of naturaliza- 
tion — Rights and duties of the foreigners 308 

III. Immigratory Movement. — Movement of passengers at the 
different ports — Table of immigration — Foreign immi- 
gration and indegnous labor 315 

IV. Colonies. — First steps — Colonizing companies — Colonies 
" Manuel Gonzalez," " Porfirio Diaz " — " Carlos Pacheco." — 
" Fernandez Leal" — "Topolobampo" — Table of the colon- 
ies — Concession for colonization from 1878 to 1891 — Purchase 
and sale contracts of uncultivated lands — Unoccupied Gov- 
ernment Lands 321 



BOOK III. 
SOCIAL ELEMENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Religion. 

I. Religion — Religious Teaching 335 

II. Catholic Religion — The Clergy in the end of the XVIII 
Century — Rents and properties — Constitution of 1824 — 
Ecclesiastical Corporation in the Federal District in 1856 — 
" Desamortizatism " Law — " Nationalization Law " 335 

III. Legal Dispositions Concerning Religions 340 

IV. Economical Organization of the Catholic Religion (priest- 
hood) 343 

V. Protestant Religion — Protestant Missions in 1892 — (The 
Field — The Workers — Churches — Schools — Publishing In- 
terests — properties) — Historical of the Protestant Churches in 



508 INDEX. 

PAGE 
Mexico — American Church Missionary Society, — Protestant 
Episcopal Missionary and Churches — The Presbyterian Mis- 
sion — Methodist Episcopal Church — Baptist Church — 
" American Friends Society " 346 



CHAPTER II. 
Public Instruction. 

I. Education in the time of Aztecs — During the Spanish Domi- 
nation — After Independence— Preliminary laws in Education 

and Instruction ,.....-. 350 

II. Compulsory Education 355 

III. Pedagogical Congress —First Congress of Instruction — 
Second Congress — Instruction Law in force in the Federal 
District — Superior Board of Public Instruction — Prizes to 

the Professors 356 

IV. Superior Instruction in the Federal District — School of Medi- 
cine — National Medical Institute of Mexico — National Mex- 
ican Medical Congress — National School of Engineers — Na- 
tional School of Agriculture and Veterinary Surgery — Higher 
School of Commerce and Administration — National School 
of Arts and Trades for Men — National School of Arts and 
Trades for Women — Correctional School of Trades and 
Prof essions — National School of Fine Arts — National 
Conservatory of Music — Military College— (Professors — 
Pupils — Studies of Infantry and Cavalry Officers — Studies of 
Artillery Officers — Studies of Engineers — Studies of Mid- 
shipmen of the National Navy — Examinations) — "La Paz " 
College for Young Ladies — National School for the Blind — 
School for the Deaf Mutes — Industrial School for Orphan 
Boys — School of Jurisprudence — Normal School of Pro- 
fessors • • 263 

V. Libraries — Scientific and Literary Societies — Muse urns -r- 
Archseological Monuments — Journalism in Mexico— (Scien- 
tific Literary Publications — Periodical Publications) 413 

VI. Primary Education in the Federal District — Public Instruc- 
tion in the States in the year 1890 and 1 892 427 



CHAPTEE III. 
Public Beneficence. 

I. History of Beneficence 430 

II. Hospitals — Hospitals of «San Andres " — " Morelos " — 
"San Hipolito Asylum for Insane men — Asylum for Insane 
women — " Juarez " • • 433 



INDEX. 509 

PAGE 

III. Asylums — Foundling Asylum — Poor House — Lying-in Hos- 
pital and Asylum for Infants 439 

IV. Schools — School for the Blind — School of Arts and Trades 
for Women — The Industrial School at Santiago — Correc- 
tional School — Correctional School of Trades and Professions 444 

V. National Loan Office " Monte de Piedad " 447' 

VI. Central Laboratory — Store House — Free Consulting Eooms. 449 

VII. Benevolent Institutions of the States — Veracruz, Nuevo 

Leon, Chiapas, Michoacan, Tabasco, Sonora, Guerrero, Col- 

ima, Guanajuato, Durango, Quer6taro, Chihuahua, Hidalgo, 

Morelos, Jalisco, Mexico, Aguascalientes, Oaxaca, Tamau- 

lipas, Zacatecas 450 

VIII. Private Charities 463 

CHAPTER IV. 
Health and Hygiene. 

I. Sanitary Conditions of the Mexican Republic — Typhus 

Fever — Yellow Fever — Small-pox — Pneumonia ... 465 

II. Creation and History of the Chief Board of Health — Sta- 
tistical Department — The Sanitary Inspectorship — Epi- 
demics — Quarantine — Inspection of the Northern Frontier 
and in communication with Guatemala — Means for pre- 
venting the infection of one town by another — Measures 
for checking the ravages of the disease — The Sanitary 
Code — Health Congress 467 

III. Sanitary Police — Organization of the Board of Health — 
Sanitary service in the Ports — Land Quarantine — Medical 
Statistics 482 

IV. Drainage of the " Valley of Mexico" — Drainage and sew- 
ers — Cemeteries , 487 

CHAPTER V. 
Public Security. 

I. Public Security before the Peace — Railway Period — Law of 

17th May, 1886, against criminals 494 

II. The Rural Police 497 

III. The City Police of Mexico — Organization — Foot Police — 
Detectives 499 



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